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Wandering Albatross

Diomedea exulans

Number Of Mature
Individuals (Regional)

14 000 – 27 000

Regional
Population Trend

Decreasing

vu

2025
Regional Category

Vulnerable

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CONTENTS
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    Overview

    Names

    IOC English Name:

    Snowy Albatross

    SA & IOC Scientific Name:

    Diomedea exulans

    BirdLife International Taxonomy (scientific name):

    Snowy Albatross (Diomedea exulans)

    Order:

    PROCELLARIIFORMES

    Family:

    Diomedeidae

    Species name author:

    Linnaeus 1758

    Afrikaans:

    Grootalbatros

    Sesotho (South Africa):

    Masikaledikepe yo moholo

    Sesotho (Lesotho):

    Siswati:

    Zulu:

    Unozulane

    Current Assessment Status

    2025 Regional Category [Criteria]

    VU [A3e; D2]

    2024 Global Category [Criteria]

    VU [A4bd] (BirdLife International 2018)

    Population size (Regional)

    14 000 – 27 000 mature individuals (PFIAO unpubl)

    Population size (Global)

    58 000 mature individuals (ACAP 2009)

    Distribution size (EOO) (Regional) km2

    3500 (breeding, foraging; Orgeret et al. 2021)

    Distribution size (EOO) (Global) km2

    128 000 000 (BirdLife International 2018)

    Distribution size (AOO) (Regional) km2

    334 (breeding)

    Generation time

    23.9 (Bird et al. 2020)

    Status change reason

    No Change

    Migrant (in the region)

    Native and non-breeding visitor

    Regional endemic

    No

    Historic Listing Information

    2000 Regional Status

    VU [A1ad+2b]

    2015 Regional Status

    VU [A4bd; D2]

    Status change reason (if applicable)

    No Change

    2015 Population size (Regional)

    c. 3650 pairs (c. 12120 mature individuals)

    2015 Global Status

    VU [A4bd]

    Reason for Inclusion

    Reason for Inclusion in the Assessment

    The Wandering Albatross Diomedea exulans was previously assessed regionally as Vulnerable (Wanless 2015) and is currently globally assessed as Vulnerable (BirdLife International 2018).

    Category Justification

    Category Justification

    The Wandering Albatross is a quasi-biennially breeding seabird with c. 7000 pairs breeding at two locations within the region, namely Prince Edward Island and Marion Island. The global population is listed as Vulnerable (VU) due to past global declines. Within the region, this species qualifies for VU under Criterion A3 due to projected future declines based on expert-assessed extinction horizons due principally to the threat of House Mice on Marion Island (Preston et al. 2019). While there is limited direct evidence of ongoing population decline currently, predictive assessments suggest that the species may experience a significant reduction over the next three generations. The extinction horizon estimates indicate that the species’ population may decline by 49% within this period, well exceeding the threshold for VU under A3 (Lee 2025).

    The species also qualifies as regionally VU under Criterion D2 due to its breeding on only two islands (locations) in the region, and the plausible future threat of the ongoing decline in breeding success, mercury contamination in the Southern Ocean and mice predation.

    A Regional Rescue Effect is not applicable and the Category is retained as VU.

    Population Justification

    The global population of the Wandering Albatross has been quantified at c. 58 000 mature individuals (Gales 1998, Ryan et al. 2009, Poncet et al. 2017, Weimerskirch 2018, Cooper 2020) with approximately 47% located on the Prince Edward Islands (27 000). For 2019, the last year in which data is available for both islands, it was estimated that there were c. 7000 breeding pairs (calculated using Delord et al. 2008) breeding in the region. According to the most recent population counts, there are c. 2466 pairs breeding biennially on Marion Island (in 2022) and c. 1754 breeding pairs on Prince Edward Island (in 2019, aerial count adjusted for nest failure at the time of census). It should be noted that the 3650 pairs value given in Wanless (2015) was for pairs breeding annually, not the total number of breeding pairs. The IUCN global estimate (BirdLife International 2018) and those in the literature have been corrected for the biennial breeding biology of the species.

    Trend Justification

    Globally, long-term population studies have been conducted on all five of the island sites where this species breeds. All populations have shown decreases in the past (Birdlife international 2018). The unit of monitoring is the number of breeding pairs, a subset of the regional population. On a regional basis, the well-monitored Marion Island sub-population decreased at roughly 1.5% per year from 1975-1990, to reach a level of c. 1200 annual breeding pairs. This downward trend reversed from the early 1990s through to around the new millennium at a rate of 5.5% per year, peaking at c. 1800 pairs (Nel et al. 2002a, Ryan et al. 2009). Over the last two decades between 2000-2019, the population trend has steadily been increasing by 1.4% per year and the overall rate of population increase between 1975 and 2022 was 0.85% per year (95% CI = 0.77–0.93; ACAP 2009, FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology, unpubl data). However, breeding success has fallen from an average of 74.6% between 1984-1993 to 67.7% between 2012-2021 (FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology, unpubl data, DZ Keys). Long-term census data have not been collected on Prince Edward Island, but trends are thought to mirror those of Marion Island (Nel et al. 2002a, Ryan et al. 2009).

    Future population projections based on extinction horizon estimates suggest that significant reductions may occur within the next three generations (Preston et al. 2019). While no significant recent declines have been observed, the potential for future declines justifies careful consideration under Criterion A3 (Lee 2025). Ongoing monitoring is essential to validate these projections and determine whether the species is experiencing measurable population decreases.

    Biology & Ecology

    Taxonomy

    The Wandering Albatross Diomedea exulans has been the subject of longstanding taxonomic debate (Nunn et al. 1996). The major albatross phylogenetic revisions settled the taxonomy into four species of wandering-type albatrosses, namely the Tristan D. dabbenena, Antipodean D. antipodensis, Amsterdam D. amsterdamensis and Wandering (D. exulans; Nunn et al. 1996, Burg and Croxall 2004, Milot et al. 2008, Rains et al. 2011). The two royal albatrosses form a discrete clade within the genus (Robertson and Nunn 1998).

    Identification

    110–135 cm, females: 8 kg, males: 10 kg; wingspan 2.7–3.5 m. An extremely large, hump-backed albatross. Sexes alike, although the male is c. 20% larger (Shaffer et al. 2001). Wide varieties of plumages occur where males and females both fledge with a dark chocolate-brown plumage with white face marks and becomes whiter with age. Within the first four years of fledging, males develop white adult plumage faster than females and older males are typically entirely white except for black flight feathers by the age of 30 (Weimerskirch et al. 1987). The bill is pink and tipped creamy yellow and legs are a flesh colour. Adults often have a pinkish crescent on the side of their necks, which is absent from royal albatrosses (Ryan 2017).

    Distribution

    The species has a circumpolar distribution across the Southern Ocean, seldom venturing into continental shelf waters (Ryan 2005). Birds breed biennially and if they are successful, they can migrate long distances during their sabbatical year. During their sabbatical, some birds may circumnavigate Antarctica (Ryan 2005, Weimerskirch et al. 2015), however, most remain relatively near their breeding colonies (Weimerskirch et al. 2015, unpubl data MAPRU NMU and FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology). After fledging, juvenile Wandering Albatrosses disperse throughout the subtropical Indian Ocean (25–40 ◦S) and forage up to the South African and Australian shelves, and the Tasman Sea; but also avoiding continental shelf waters (de Grissac et al. 2017). Like adults, juveniles quickly start exploiting particular oceanographic features, such as sea mounts and ridges, and demonstrate similar large-scale movement behaviours (de Grissac et al. 2017).

    They breed at six different island sites including South Georgia, the Prince Edward Islands, the Crozet Archipelago, the Kerguelen Islands and Macquarie Island. The three island groups in the Indian Ocean sector, namely Crozet, Kerguelen, and the Prince Edward islands, together account for approximately 86% of the global population. Birds forage up to 4 000 km away from breeding colonies (Carpenter-Kling et al. 2020) and foraging strategies change throughout the breeding season (Nel et al. 2002b). During the breeding period, birds from Marion Island and Crozet segregate sexually, with females foraging in a more northerly direction towards the subtropics whereas males forage more towards the south (Orgeret et al. 2021). Birds ringed at South Georgia, Crozet, Kerguelen, and Marion Islands have been recovered in the waters off southern Africa (Morant et al. 1983). The one bird recovered on Marion Island was an individual that hatched on Crozet and bred on Marion Island 9 years later (Mougin 1977).

    Ecology

    The Wandering Albatross is a quasi-biennial breeding species, with a very small proportion of successful breeders attempting to breed the following year (Barbraud and Weimerskirch 2012). Their breeding season lasts up to 13 months (ACAP 2009). On average, birds start breeding at 10 years of age (Weimerskirch et al. 1997a), live up to 50 years (Cooper et al. 2003), and have an estimated generation length of 23.3 years (Birdlife International 2018). Breeding birds nest at low elevations relatively close to the coast, in coastal vegetation (Momberg et al. 2023). The species is predominantly a diurnal feeder (Phalan et al. 2007) and prey is mainly obtained by surface-seizing (Prince et al. 1994) or by scavenging (Cooper et al. 1992, Croxall and Prince 1994). Breeding birds primarily consume cephalopods and fish (Cooper et al. 1992, Cherel and Klages 1998, Weimerskirch et al. 1997b). The species is known to trail behind ships and has been shown to change its flight direction and head towards fishing vessels up to 30 km away (Collet et al. 2015), and interact with the vessels after attraction (Weimerskirch 2018).

    Threats & Conservation

    Threats

    Over the last half century, Wandering Albatross populations from the Prince Edward Islands, Crozet, and Kerguelen have shown similar population trends (Ryan et al. 2009), suggesting that similar factors impact fluctuations in population sizes (Weimerskirch 2018). The decline of these populations have largely been attributed to high bycatch rates by large-scale longline tuna fisheries in the Indian Ocean high seas (Weimerskirch et al. 1997a, Nel et al. 2002a, Nel et al. 2003) and, to a lesser extent, the Patagonian longline toothfish fisheries fishing around the sub-Antarctic shelf edges and seamounts (Weimerskirch et al. 1997). However, it should be noted that this species is seldom killed in the South African longline fishery (Petersen et al. 2009), or the Patagonian toothfish fishery within the Prince Edwards Islands’ EEZ (Nel et al. 2002b), and mitigation measures have been implemented by the toothfish fisheries within the French EEZs which have substantially reduced the bycatch rates (Weimerskirch 2018). Wandering Albatross are attracted to fishing vessels more than other types of vessels (Weimerskirch et al. 2020) and despite the implementation of technologies intended to reduce bycatch, long line tuna fisheries in international waters, illegal, uncontrolled, or non-declared fisheries operating without mitigation measures are still a concern of bycatch risk for this species (Huang and Liu 2010, Delord and Weimerskirch 2011, Tuck et al. 2015, Weimerskirch 2018, Weimerskirch et al. 2020).

    Invasive species are a significant threat to many seabird species (Dias et al. 2019), and it has been suggested that their behaviour has possibly changed during recent decades as a result of climate change (van Aarde and Jackson 2007, Davies et al. 2015, Barbraud et al. 2021). Marion Island has been free of feral cats Felis catus since 1991 (Bester et al. 2000), and although suggested, there was no evidence that they preyed on Wandering Albatross, they predominantly preyed on burrowing petrels (Van Aarde 1981). However, more recently on Kerguelen Island, feral cats have been predating on chicks, drastically decreasing the breeding success (Barbraud et al. 2021). Control experiments have demonstrated that removal of the feral cats will allow for breeding success to recover (Barbraud et al. 2021). Predation by Mice Mus musculus on Marion Island have been recorded since 2003 (Dilley et al. 2016), and while only recorded at low levels, predation on albatross chicks and the increase of attacks around the island is a cause for concern (Wanless et al. 2007, Jones and Ryan 2010, Dilley et al. 2016). There are no rodents at Prince Edward Island (Chown et al. 2002).

    Wandering Albatross are bioindicators of contaminants in the Southern Ocean and are exposed to a variety of organic and inorganic contaminants (Carravieri et al. 2014, Perold et al. 2020), with particularly high mercury (Hg) concentrations (Carravieri et al. 2014, Cherel et al. 2018). High levels of blood Hg have long term breeding consequences for Wandering Albatrosses which may negatively affect population growth through decrease in long-term breeding probability, hatching and fledging probabilities (Goutte et al. 2014). Furthermore, adult Wandering Albatross ingest and feed their chicks anthropogenic debris such as mesoplastics, macroplastics (Perold et al. 2020, Phillips and Waluda 2020), and fishing gear (Nel et al. 2002b, Phillips et al. 2010, Perold et al. 2020) which can reduce seabird body condition (Ryan 1987) and lead to fatalities (Nel and Nel 1999).

    Conservation Measures Underway

    Internationally, the Wandering Albatross receives protection under the Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels (Annex 1), 2018 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, and the Convention on Migratory Species (Appendix II).

    Regionally, it receives protection in South Africa under the Sea Birds and Seals Protection Act, 1973 (Act No. 46 of 1973), Marine Living Resources Act (Act No. 18 of 1998): Publication of Policy on the Management of Seals, Seabirds and Shorebirds: 2007 and the National Plan of Action (NPOA) for Reducing the Incidental Catch on Seabirds in Longline Fisheries (2008). The Prince Edward Islands are listed as a Ramsar Wetland of International Importance, and as a Special Nature Reserve under the Environment Conservation Act (No 73 of 1989) and the Prince Edward Islands Management Plan 1996. The Prince Edward Islands Marine Protected Area was proclaimed in 2013.

    BirdLife South Africa’s Albatross Task Force (ATF) is actively researching new technologies to reduce incidental mortality in fisheries by working directly with fishermen to achieve “win-win practical solutions”. It also monitors observer data and estimates annual bycatch in selected fisheries and promotes the development and enforcement of best practice to reduce incidental mortality. It supports the construction and distribution of devices such as Bird Scaring Lines for fishing vessels. BirdLife International is actively lobbying regional fisheries management organisations, particularly the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission and the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tuna, to improve the conservation measures required of longline fishing vessels. It is also supporting moves to create regional observer programmes and strengthen observer data collection and reporting procedures. Several fisheries management organizations and the Agreement for the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels (ACAP) have recommended the Hookpod as a stand-alone best practice bycatch mitigation measure, and since 2019, it has been included in the South African Longline Fisheries Permit Conditions to mitigate seabird bycatch. In 2022, the ATF initiated trails with new reusable mini-Hookpods that aims to further prevent seabird bycatch in longline fisheries. In 2021, the Imvelo Bird-scaring Line (BSL) compliance device trials were carried out by the ATF with funding from ACAP and in collaboration with Imvelo Blue Environmental Consultancy to continue the improvement of the electronic compliance monitoring device.

    Conservation Measures Proposed

    Ongoing measures by BirdLife South Africa, BirdLife International, Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) and the Albatross Task Force (ATF), to improve pelagic longline fishing operations in the high seas and reduce incidental mortality of seabirds should be supported and extended to distant fishing nations operating in the Southern Ocean. The South African Government should continue promoting international best-practice for reducing seabird mortalities at bodies such as the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission, International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tuna, and the Commission for the Conservation of Southern Bluefin Tuna. Regional and national observer programmes and reporting of their data remain of paramount importance in understanding the scale of incidental mortality and potential effectiveness of (and level of compliance with) mitigation measures employed. Programmes to survey the sub-population at Prince Edward Island regularly and tracking birds to assess degree of overlap with various fisheries remain important tools for assessing and addressing the ongoing threats from fishery interactions.

    Research Priorities and Questions

    • The population trends and the number of breeding pairs for the largest colonies have drastically changed since the last global assessment. Therefore, it is important to conduct a global assessment of Wandering Albatross to update their global conservation status.
    • Continued, non-invasive demographic studies and monitoring on Marion Island – which can include remote sensing tools such as aerial photography, GPS tracking, and recording audio and video data.
    • Continued tracking studies to assess the spatial overlap with fisheries and responses to climate change.

    Contributors & References

    Assessor/s

    Danielle Z Keys

    Reviewer/s

    Pierre Pistorius

    References

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