Cape Cormorant
Phalacrocorax capensis
Number Of Mature
Individuals (Regional)
36 000
Regional
Population Trend
Decreasing
2025
Regional Category
Endangered
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CONTENTSOverview
Names
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IOC English Name: |
Cape Cormorant |
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SA & IOC Scientific Name: |
Phalacrocorax capensis |
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BirdLife International Taxonomy (scientific name): |
Phalacrocorax capensis |
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Order: |
SULIFORMES |
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Family: |
Phalacrocoracidae |
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Species name author: |
Sparrman 1788 |
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Afrikaans: |
Trekduiker |
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Sesotho (South Africa): |
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Sesotho (Lesotho): |
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Siswati: |
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Zulu: |
iwonde lasolwandle |
Current Assessment Status
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2025 Regional Category [Criteria] |
EN [A2bc] |
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2024 Global Category [Criteria] |
EN [A2bc+3bc+4bc] (BirdLife International 2018) |
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Population size (Regional) |
18 000 pairs (2021/22, Crawford et al. 2024) |
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Population size (Global) |
234 000 (BirdLife International 2018) |
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Distribution size (EOO) (Regional) km2 |
c. 32 000 |
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Distribution size (EOO) (Global) km2 |
1 060 000 (breeding/resident) |
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Distribution size (AOO) (Regional) km2 |
c. 4000 |
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Generation time |
9.25 years (Crawford et al. 2016) |
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Status change reason |
No change |
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Migrant (in the region) |
No |
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Regional endemic |
No |
Historic Listing Information
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2000 Regional Status |
NT [A1a+2bc] |
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2015 Regional Status |
EN [A2ab+3bc+4b] |
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Status change reason (if applicable) |
Genuine (recent) |
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2015 Population size (Regional) |
c. 75 800 mature individuals |
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2015 Global Status |
EN [A2b+3bc+4b] |
Reason for Inclusion
Reason for Inclusion in the Assessment
>5% of the global distribution of the Cape Cormorant halacrocorax capensis falls within the region. In addition, the species is currently listed as globally Endangered and was assessed as regionally Near Threatened in 2015.
Category Justification
Category Justification
The decrease in the South African population exceeds the 50% threshold in three generations (at 53.5%) – a rate sufficiently high to warrant continued classification as regionally Endangered. This population reduction is largely based on an observed decrease in breeding pairs, and a decline in habitat quality (predation and poor prey availability), classifying it as Endangered under Criterion A2bc.
Population Justification
Numbers of breeding Cape Cormorants are based on counts of nests or pairs, often using aerial photographs for large colonies. The global population was quantified at c. 234 000 pairs from 2018-2022, a substantial increase on the 108 000 pairs estimated to breed between 2013 and 2017. The increase was mainly attributable to a large rise in numbers of birds nesting at Ilha dos Tigres, southern Angola, from 16 000 pairs in 2017 (Mendelsohn and Haraes 2018) to 95 000 pairs in 2020 (Crawford et al. 2024). Despite the increase in the global population, and the potential warranting of downlisting this species to globally Near Threatened (Crawford et al. 2024), numbers breeding in South Africa fell from 104 000 pairs in 1978/79 to 18 000 pairs in 2021/22. The confidence in the regional population estimate is high.
Trend Justification
The South African population decreased by 86 000 pairs (83%) from 104 000 pairs in 1978/79 to 18 000 in 2021/22 (4.65 generations), a rate equivalent to 53.5% in 3 generations. The confidence in this regional population trend is high.
Biology & Ecology
Taxonomy
There are no notable issues.
Identification
A medium-sized marine cormorant, measuring 61–64 cm in length and weighing 1.1–1.3 kg. It is often seen flying low over the ocean in long lines. Both sexes have similar blue-black breeding plumage with a glossy sheen and varying numbers of white filoplumes on the head, neck, and vent. Scapulars and wing coverts are iridescent bronze-green with black edges, while the flight feathers are black. The bill is dark grey-black, eyes are turquoise, and the greenish eye-ring features bright blue ‘beads’ early in the breeding season. Bare skin below the eyes and on the gular pouch is deep yellow-orange. Non-breeding adults are duller, with mottled brown throats and breasts, and less vibrant eyes and facial skin. Immatures are paler, with brown or cream throats and breasts, and blue-grey eyes. Juveniles are even paler, with downy heads and necks, pale brown underparts, grey eyes, and black, white, or speckled gular pouches (Crawford 2005).
Distribution
The Cape Cormorant is endemic to southern Africa, occurring from Lobito, central Angola, to Maputo Bay, southern Mozambique with its core range being from Ilha dos Tigres, southern Angola to Cape Agulhas, Western Cape (Cooper et al. 1982, Mendelsohn and Haraes 2018). Its breeding range extends from Ilha dos Tigres, southern Angola to the Bird Island group in Algoa Bay, Eastern Cape (Crawford 1997), respectively at the north and east of the Benguela upwelling ecosystem (Crawford et al. 2024). It is a regular visitor to the coasts of KwaZulu-Natal, mainly between July and November. It is usually found within 20 km of the coast (Crawford 2005). Extent of Occurrence in South Africa was roughly estimated as 32 000 km2 (c. 1600 km around the coast from the Orange River mouth to eastern Algoa Bay multiplied by 20 km) and Area of Occupancy as 800 km2 (half the distance between the Orange River mouth and eastern Algoa Bay) multiplied by 5 km, assuming birds mainly feed inshore). The area used for breeding in South Africa would be <10 km2.
Ecology
The Cape Cormorant is found on the coast and at sea mainly in inshore waters, but also offshore (<50 km from the coast). It breeds mainly on islands and islets, but also on rocky outcrops of the mainland, including cliffs or boulders (Crawford 2005). Cape Cormorants forage at sea on small pelagic fish, mainly Cape Anchovy Engraulis encrasicolis, South African Sardine Sardinops sagax and Horse Mackerel Trachurus trachurus (Crawford and Dyer 1995). A generation length of 9.25 years was calculated by Crawford et al. (2016). Cape Cormorants track foraging groups of African Penguins Spheniscus demersus and take advantage of schooling anchovy that have been elevated to shallow waters by the penguins (McInnes and Pistorius 2019).
Threats & Conservation
Threats
Historical trends in numbers of Cape Cormorants breeding have been linked to the availability of sardine and anchovy (Crawford et al. 2019, 2022). The observed major cause of Cape Cormorant mortalities submitted to the Southern African Foundation for the Conservation of Coastal Birds (SANCCOB) during the assessment period was emaciation (D Roberts, personal communication). This threat corresponded to estimates of sardine biomass between 2006 and 2022, which in 16 of the 17 years were <20% of the maximum recorded biomass (Coetzee et al. 2022). There is considerable overlap in the sizes of anchovy and sardine eaten by Cape Cormorants and harvested by South Africa’s purse-seine fishery (Masiko et al. 2021). Nest abandonment likely due to poor prey conditions can lead to mass mortalities of chicks. A significant breeding failure event occurred on Robben Island in 2021 during poor prey conditions, when 2000 chicks were submitted to SANCCOB (D Roberts pers comm). Disease is a major threat to this species. Large outbreaks of avian cholera Pasteurella multocida led to high mortality of Cape Cormorants at Dassen Island in the early 1990s (Crawford et al. 1992) and at Dyer Island between 2002 and 2005 (Waller and Underhill 2007). Stresses such as food scarcity and extreme heat conditions can cause outbreaks of avian cholera (Crawford et al 1992). Between October and December 2021, approximately 24 000 Cape Cormorants, mostly from Dyer Island and the west coast, died from high pathogenicity avian influenza; estimated mortality at the time was c. 16% of the South African population (L Roberts and D Roberts pers comm). The species is very sensitive to human disturbance, which leads to nest desertion and loss of eggs and chicks to avian predators. An increase in numbers of Kelp Gulls Larus dominicanus decreased breeding success in some areas through increased predation on eggs and chicks (Voorbergen et al. 2012). Great White Pelicans Pelecanus onocrotalus on islands off the West Coast sometimes eat substantial numbers of average to large size chicks (Mwema et al. 2009). A serious threat is the Cape Fur Seal Arctocephalus pusillus, which can predate up to 24% of all fledglings produced by a single breeding colony (Voorbergen et al. 2012). The species is vulnerable to oiling, and attempts to catch and clean oiled birds have generally been unsuccessful in the past (Crawford et al. 2000). Cape Cormorants are also susceptible to entanglements in fishing gear.
Conservation Measures Underway
Current conservation actions include full protection of Cape Cormorants at breeding colonies, mainly islands, which fall under the jurisdiction of South African National Parks, CapeNature and Robben Island Nature Reserve. The species is protected in terms of the Sea Birds and Seals Protection Act No. 46 of 1973. Trends in numbers breeding at important colonies are monitored by South Africa’s Department of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environmental (DFFE), CapeNature and SANParks. Opportunistic information on diet is obtained. Banding of chicks is undertaken to estimate movements and survival. SANCCOB has rescued and released a significant number of abandoned chicks. Recommended disease contingency plans for avian influenza outbreaks in seabirds, including Cape Cormorants, have been developed by Roberts et al. (2023).
Conservation Measures Proposed
Protection of marine habitat around major Cape Cormorant colonies from potential resource competition can be facilitated by the implementation of effective no-take zones for purse-seine fishing. Cape Cormorants have similar foraging ranges to African Penguins during their respective breeding seasons and may benefit from fishing closures implemented around penguin colonies at Dassen and Robben islands on the west coast, Stony Point and Dyer Island on the south coast and the St Croix and Bird groups of islands in Algoa Bay. The Operational Management Procedures and associated Harvest Control Rules (HCR) developed by DFFE to guide the allocation of anchovy and sardine catches to South Africa’s purse-seine fishery should be reviewed to assess if they are adequately sensitive to the prey requirements of Cape Cormorants. African Penguins and Cape Gannets Morus capensis rely heavily on anchovy and sardine for food. The HCRs as proposed by Koehn et al. (2021) provide mutually acceptable alternatives to both seabirds and fisheries in this regard. Coordination of an effective disease response programme should be facilitated through disease management and disturbance protocols developed and updated with the relevant authorities including DFFE, SANParks, Cape Nature and Robben Island Museum.
Research Priorities and Questions
- Collection of the outstanding information required to conduct a population viability analysis for this species.
Contributors & References
Assessor/s
Alistair M McInnes, Robert JM Crawford, Azwianewi B Makhado
Reviewer/s
Shamiso Banda
References
BirdLife International. 2018. Phalacrocorax capensis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018: e.T22696806A132594943. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22696806A132594943.en. [Accessed on 12 February 2025].
Coetzee JC, Shabangu F, Maliza L, Geja Y, Merkle D, Ntiyantiya D, Bali A, Peterson J, Jarvis G, Mxunyelwa N, Adonis V, April W, Johnsson M, van Neel M, Louw A, Phillips M, Mahlati O, Zweni S. 2022. Final results of the 2022 pelagic biomass survey. Department of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment. FISHERIES/2023/FEB/SWG-PEL/02. 1–9.
Cooper J, Brooke RK, Shelton PA, Crawford RJM. 1982. Distribution, population size and conservation of the Cape Cormorant Phalacrocorax capensis. Fisheries Bulletin South Africa 16: 121–143.
Crawford RJM. 1997. Cape Cormorant Phalacrocorax capensis. In: Harrison JA, Allan DG, Underhill LG, Herrremans M, Tree AJ, Parker C, Brown CJ (eds), The Atlas of Southern African Birds. Volume 1: Non-passerines. Johannesburg: BirdLife South Africa. pp 32–33.
Crawford RJM, Dyer BM. 1995. Responses by four seabird species to a fluctuating availability of Cape Anchovy Engraulis capensis off South Africa. Ibis 137: 329–339. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1474-919X.1995.tb08029.x
Crawford RJM, Allwright DM, Heyl CW. 1992. High mortality of Cape Cormorants (Phalacrocorax capensis) off western South Africa in 1991 caused by Pasteurella multocida. Colonial Waterbirds 15: 236–238.
Crawford RJM, Davis SA, Harding R, Jackson LF, Leshoro TM, Meÿer MA, Randall RM, Underhill LG, Upfold L, Van Dalsen AP, Van der Merwe E, Whittington PA, Williams AJ, Wolfaardt AC. 2000. Initial impact of the Treasure oil spill on seabirds off western South Africa. South African Journal of Marine Science 22: 157–176.
Crawford RJM, Randall RM, Cook TR, Ryan PG, Dyer BM, Fox R, Geldenhuys D, Huisamen J, McGeorge C, Upfold L, Visagie J, Waller LJ, Whittington PA, Wilke CG, Makhado AB. 2016. Cape cormorants decrease, move east and adapt foraging strategies following eastward displacement of their main prey. African Journal of Marine Science 38: 373–383.
Crawford RJM, Sydeman WJ, Thompson SA, Sherley RB, Makhado AB. 2019. Food habits of an endangered seabird indicate recent poor availability of abundant forage resources. ICES Journal of Marine Science 76: 1344–1352.
Crawford RJM, Dyer BM, Masotla M, Tom D, Upfold L, Visagie J, Makhado AB. 2024. Numbers, trends, status, and conservation of Cape Cormorant (Phalacrocorax capensis). In: AB Makhado, A. Amaro, RJM Crawford, T Gottlieb, M Morais, D Mwaala, L Nghimwatya, M Seakamela, D Tom, M Witteveen, PA. Whittington (Eds), Atlas of marine turtles, seabirds, and seals in the Benguela Current and adjacent regions. Cape Town, South Africa: Population sizes and trends, conservation status, and Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas for breeding. Benguela Current Convention, Swakopmund, Namibia and Department of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment.
Koehn LE, Siple MC, Essington TE. 2021. A structured seabird population model reveals how alternative forage fish control rules benefit seabirds and fisheries. Ecological Applications 31(7): 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1002/eap.2401
Masiko OB, Ryan PG, van der Lingen CD, Upfold L, Somhlaba S, Masotla M, Geja Y, Dyer BM, Crawford RJM, Makhado AB. 2021. Are Cape Cormorants Phalacrocorax capensis losing the competition? Dietary overlap with commercial fisheries. Ostrich 92: 280–294.
McInnes AM, Pistorius PA. 2019. Up for grabs: Prey herding by penguins facilitates shallow foraging by volant seabirds. Royal Society Open Science 6(6). Available: https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.190333
Mendelsohn JM, Haraes L. 2018. Aerial census of Cape Cormorants and Cape Fur Seals at Baía dos Tigres, Angola. Namibian Journal of Environment 2 Section A 1–6.
Mwema MM, de Ponte Machado M, Ryan PG. 2009. Breeding seabirds at Dassen Island, South Africa: chances of surviving great white pelican predation. Endangered Species Research 9: 125–131. Available: https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00243.
Roberts LC, Abolnik C, Waller LJ, Shaw K, Ludynia K, Roberts DG, Kock AA, Makhado AB, Snyman A, Abernethy, D. 2023. Descriptive epidemiology and management of the highly pathogenic avian influenza (H5N8) epidemic in South African coastal seabirds, 2018. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases.
Voorbergen A, De Boer WF, Underhill LG. 2012. Natural and human-induced predation on Cape Cormorants at Dyer Island. Bird Conservation International 22: 82–93. Available: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0959270912000032.
Waller LJ, Underhill LG. 2007. Management of avian cholera Pasteurella multocida outbreaks on Dyer Island, South Africa, 2002–2005. African Journal of Marine Science 29: 105–111. Available: https://doi.org/10.2989/AJMS.2007.29.1.9.74.
Citation
McInnes AM, Crawford RJM, Makhado AB 2025. Cape Cormorant. In: Lee ATK, Rose S, Banda S, Bezeng SB, Maphalala MI, Maphisa DH, Smit-Robinson H (eds), The 2025 Red Data Book of Birds of South Africa, Lesotho and Eswatini. Johannesburg, South Africa: BirdLife South Africa. Available at: https://www.birdlife.org.za/red-list/cape-cormorant/
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