Lesser Kestrel
Falco naumanni
Number Of Mature
Individuals (Regional)
17 000
Regional
Population Trend
Decreasing
2025
Regional Category
Vulnerable
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CONTENTSOverview
Names
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IOC English Name: |
Lesser Kestrel |
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SA & IOC Scientific Name: |
Falco naumanni |
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BirdLife International Taxonomy (scientific name): |
Falco naumanni |
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Order: |
FALCONIFORMES |
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Family: |
Falconidae |
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Species name author: |
Fleischer JG 1818 |
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Afrikaans: |
Kleinrooivalk |
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Sesotho (South Africa): |
seotsanyana-sa-matsema |
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Sesotho (Lesotho): |
seotsanyana-sa-matsema |
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Siswati: |
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Zulu: |
umathebethebanomncane |
Current Assessment Status
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2025 Regional Category [Criteria] |
VUo [A2a] |
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2024 Global Category [Criteria] |
LC (BirdLife International 2021a) |
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Population size (Regional) |
c. 17 000 mature individuals |
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Population size (Global) |
80 000 – 134 000 (BirdLife International 2021a) |
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Distribution size (EOO) (Regional) km2 |
140 362 (Lee 2024) |
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Distribution size (EOO) (Global) km2 |
24 800 000 (BirdLife International 2021a) |
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Distribution size (AOO) (Regional) km2 |
63 522 (Lee 2024) |
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Generation time |
3.79 (BirdLife International 2021a) |
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Status change reason |
Genuine Change in Status |
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Migrant (in the region) |
Full migrant |
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Regional endemic |
No |
Historic Listing Information
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2000 Regional Status |
VU [A1ace] |
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2015 Regional Status |
LC |
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Status change reason (if applicable) |
Genuine Change in Status |
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2015 Population size (Regional) |
Unknown |
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2015 Global Status |
LC |
Reason for Inclusion
Reason for Inclusion in the Assessment
The Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni was previously assessed in 2015 as Least Concern (Taylor et al. 2015). Preliminary analyses of South African Bird Atlas (SABAP2) data indicated that this species may be in decline regionally and was therefore included for reassessment (Lee 2024).
Category Justification
Category Justification
Lesser Kestrel is a summer migrant in the region. Three recent assessments have been undertaken for the Lesser Kestrel, one on a global scale (Birdlife International 2021a), one for Europe (Birdlife International 2021b) and one for the Mediterranean region (Westrip et al. 2022). All three assessments assessed the species as Least Concern.
Regionally, several data sources show that Lesser Kestrel have undergone significant declines over the past three generations. Some estimates put this decline at greater than 50%, which would qualify for an assessment outcome of regionally Endangered under Criterion A2a. SABAP2 data indicates that the species has a large Extent of Occurrence (EOO) and Area of Occupancy (AOO) that exceed the thresholds for Criterion B, and the population exceeds thresholds for Criterion C.
As a migratory species, however, Lesser Kestrel should benefit from a rescue effect through immigration from stable or growing populations elsewhere, which may help counterbalance some regional losses. Given these considerations, the regional assessment outcome is adjusted to Vulnerable.
Population Justification
Global population estimates for Lesser Kestrel are 80 000 – 134 000 mature individuals (Birdlife International 2021a). McCann (1997) stated that South Africa is the single most important over-wintering region for the Lesser Kestrel. Numerous attempts have been made in the past to obtain estimates of population size (e.g. Siegfried and Skead 1971, Colahan 1993, Colahan and van Niekerk 2008) but these efforts have been once off attempts. Although efforts were made in the early 2000s to establish long-term, coordinated monitoring of roost sites, only a few are consistently monitored today.
The 2006/2007 roost counts estimated the regional population at 88 976 individuals (c. 58 724 mature individuals) (BirdLife International 2021a). This is probably an underestimate however as Colahan and van Niekerk (2008) obtained an estimate of 136 083 birds (c. 89 800 mature individuals) in the Free State alone. To avoid double counting Colahan and van Niekerk (2008) surveyed roosts on a specified nights after birds arrived or the following morning before the birds left. These surveys were done at 40 roost sites in the Free State Province in 2005 (i.e. a year prior to the regional estimate provided by BirdLife International 2021a). The estimate of 89 800 is for a substantial portion of the population and is used to reflect a minimum estimate. Applying a trend of -81% (see Trend Justification below) it is estimated that the minimum current population size is c. 17 000 mature individuals. There is high confidence that the regional population is more than 10 000 mature individuals.
Trend Justification
The global, European and Mediterranean assessments considered Lesser Kestrel to be stable or increasing (Birdlife International 2021a, 2021b, Westrip et al. 2022). In contrast to this Aparico et al. (2022) indicate that the total population of 12 colonies in Spain has undergone a 39.4% decline since 2012.
While the Western population is fairly well documented, no detailed information on the conservation status and population trends of the Asian population is available, counts of Lesser Kestrels in South Africa are currently decreasing, suggesting ongoing population decline and range contraction (Lee and Hammer 2022, Lee 2024). Roost data has and is still being collected albeit in an ad hoc fashion. Unfortunately for a variety of reasons (safety, removal of roost trees, disturbance causing birds to abandon roosts), many roost counts have stopped and only a handful continue to be monitored. Some of the data has been published (e.g. Wardet al. 2008, Colahan and van Niekerk 2008), while data from other roost sites remain unpublished and therefore inaccessible.
The species within the region has experienced significant declines over recent years, as evidenced by existing monitoring data. Using a three-generation time frame (11.4 years, based on a generation length of 3.8 years provided by BirdLife International 2021a), a model fitted with a quasi-poisson distribution on colony data from four key sites (three sites monitored by the Endangered Wildlife Trust (EWT) and one site monitored by D de Swart – unpubl data) estimates an overall population decline of approximately 81% from 2012 to 2023, with confidence intervals ranging from -92% to -51% (Figure 1). However, a substantial number of sites remain unmonitored, suggesting that the values may reflect a more severe decline than possibly the full population trend across the region. Zuluago et al. (in prep) obtained a decline of –80.1% (-90.13%, -59.88%) using data collected between 2009 and 2024 from road transects (nearly 400 000 km) that covered the regional distribution of the species relatively well. Also, Mphetlhe (2023) using road count data from Botswana compared a combined data set (2015-2016 for northern Botswana and 2019-2021 for southern Botswana) to a data set from surveys carried out 1991-1995 and found an 86% decline between the two. While Botswana is north of South Africa, it is within the overwintering region for the migratory Lesser Kestrel and experiencing similar declines.
Figure 1: Poptrend plot for four Lesser Kestrel roosts in South Africa. Red indicates periods of significant decline (Lee 2024).
In the region the Lesser Kestrel forages exclusively on insects that are ephemeral but can be locally super abundant (Pepler 2000). More accurate trends would require a significant number of roosts to be surveyed to counter short term temporal changes in numbers at individual roost sites (Ward 2008).
The estimated declines from the four colonies and that of Zuluaga et al. (in prep) and Mphetlhe (2023) aligns closely with independent trend data from the SABAP2 atlas, which also indicates sustained regional declines (Figure 2) for the species (modelled range contraction of 17%, Lee 2024). Confidence in these trends is high.
Figure 2: Predictive modelled range change for Lesser Kestrel over three generations between early (2007-2015) and late (2016-2023) SABAP2. Red indicating regions of decline. (from Lee 2024).
Biology & Ecology
Taxonomy
The Lesser Kestrel is a monotypic species. There was relatively recent support for the validity of the former race pekinenses for those birds occurring in the eastern most portion of the distribution area (Corso et al. 2015), but no further work has been carried out to validate the recognition of this race.
Identification
26–32 cm, 140–155 g. Sexes are dimorphic in plumage coloration. The male has a bright blue-grey crown extending down onto the face and nape. The back is a plain rufous colour, while the rump and tail are grey. The tail has a white tip with broad black subterminal band. The female has a pale rufous crown and nape with fine black streaking on head and neck. The cheeks are pale. The back has also a pale rufous colour, with dense dark barring. The rump is grey, but unlike the male the tail is a pale rufous colour fine dark bars and a broader subterminal band. The bare parts of both sexes are the same. The legs and feet are a deep yellow with whitish claws. The bill is grey with a black tip and yellow cere and the eyes are dark brown with a deep yellow eye ring (Jenkins 2005).
The male Lesser Kestrel may be confused with the Rock Kestrel F. tinnunculus and the female with the Greater Kestrel F. rupicoloides (McCann 1997).
Distribution
The breeding range of the Lesser Kestrel occurs over the Mediterranean, south-eastern Europe and central Asia. The species winters almost exclusively in Africa south of the Sahara, but also in southern Spain, southern Turkey and Malta (BirdLife International 2024). Lesser Kestrel has a widespread distribution regionally (Figure 3) although concentrated in the Highveld of the Free State, Northern Cape, northern Eastern Cape and the North West Province. In the Western Cape, Gauteng and Kwa-Zulu Natal the species has a marginal occurrence. The species is considered a scarce visitor to Eswatini and only occurs in the lowlands of western Lesotho (Pepler 2000).
Figure 3: Distribution map of Lesser Kestrel also showing pentad level change between SABAP2 periods 2007-2015 and 2016-2023 (from Lee 2024).
Ecology
Habitat:
The Lesser Kestrel is associated with grasslands, and can be found in the grassy Karoo, the western fringes of grassland biome and the southeastern parts of the Kalahari (Jenkins 2005). They will hunt in transformed habitat provided the conversion is not to total sugar cane and/or plantation forestry. In the Western Cape the species forages over small grain fields and pastures that were once Fynbos and Renosterveld (Pepler 2000).
Migration:
In southern Africa, Lesser Kestrel begin arriving in November reaching peak numbers in January/February, and then depart for the breeding grounds around March (McCann 1997). There is a degree of uncertainty regarding the origins of the populations visiting South Africa. Pepler et al. (1994) suggests that the birds originate from far-eastern populations based on the virtually complete lack of radionuclide activity in samples taken from birds across the region. Ring recoveries of two birds, one from the Stavropol Region in Russia and the other from Chokpak pass of Kazakhstan (Oatley et al. 1998), however suggest a more central population origin. Taylor et al. (2015) suggest Asian origin, probably because they arrive in the region together with Amur Falcons Falco amurensis, which as shown by Meyburg et al. (2017) have their origins in north-eastern China. Symes and Woodborne (2010), using stable isotope analysis, determined that juvenile Amur Falcons sampled in South Africa originated from across their entire Palaearctic range.
Breeding:
The Lesser Kestrel is a non-breeding migratory species to the region. On the breeding grounds it breeds colonially, normally in groups of no more than 25 pairs, but on occasions as few as two pairs. In the past groups of more than a hundred pairs were common. Natural nest sites include rock faces, quarries and clay banks, but Lesser Kestrel nest mainly in human constructions including walls, houses, buildings and ruins. Three to six eggs are laid which are incubated for 26–29 days by both adults, but mostly the female. Chicks fledge at about 36 days and are independent about a week later (Orta and Kirwan 2020).
Diet:
In the region, a study by Anderston et al. (1998) found that Lesser Kestrels forage predominantly on Arthopoda (90% of the diet samples), with Solifugae, Orthoptera, Chilopoda and Isoptera constituting 30, 23, 20 and 10% of the stomach content respectively.
During the breeding season Lesser Kestrel feed predominantly on beetles and grasshoppers but will also consume larger prey such as small mammals, lizards, bush crickets and mole crickets (Kopij 2002).
Threats & Conservation
Threats
Based on analyses of ecological responses to past and future climates, it has recently highlighted that the Asian (eastern) lineage might become increasingly threatened by contemporary climate change because of: 1) a predicted reduction of the climatically suitable extent of both breeding and African non-breeding range; 2) a further increase of migration distance due to a north-eastern shift of the breeding range; 3) genetic maladaptation (Ferrer-Obiol et al. submitted). Habitat loss and degradation on the Lesser Kestrel breeding grounds in the Western Palearctic is the main reason for the decline observed during the second half of the 20th century. This was predominantly due to agricultural intensification, but also due to afforestation of low-productive farmland, land abandonment and urbanisation (Iñigo and Barov 2010). These threats are similar to those in South Africa, where key grasslands have been lost to agricultural intensification, afforestation and intensive pasture (McCann 1997, Pepler 2000). During the period of DDT use, Lesser Kestrel prey was reduced, birds were poisoned, and breeding success was reduced (Orta and Kirwin 2020). McCann (1997) indicates that locust control in the region using pesticides may have an impact on the species. Climate change may bring about an increase in the frequency of drought in the Sahel region, where Mihoub et al. (2010) demonstrated that survival of overwintering Juvenile birds was strongly correlated with rainfall. The high levels of chick mortality recorded during periods of unusually hot weather are a concern given projected levels of global warming (Orta and Kirwin 2020). The conversion to green energy specifically wind turbines may pose an additional threat to the species (Pescador et al. 2019). Other threats mentioned by Jenkins (2005) are persecution at roosts and the removal of roost trees.
Conservation Measures Underway
Regionally there are a few initiatives to monitor specific roosts (e.g. three roost sites in the Northern Cape Province monitored under the guidance of the Birds of Prey working Group of the Endangered Wild Trust (EWT)), and voluntary reporting of observations via social media. The Lesser Kestrel is listed under Appendix 1 (Migratory species which are Endangered) of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals. In terms of Appendix 1 species, the convention requires that range states of a migratory species endeavour to conserve and where feasible restore habitats, prevent as far as possible adverse effects preventing migration and prevent factors that are further likely to endanger the species (Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals 2015). The species is also listed under Category 2 (species considered to have unfavourable conservation status at a regional level) of the Memorandum of Understanding on the Conservation of Migratory Birds of Prey in Africa and Eurasia (Commonly referred to as the Raptors MOU) which is a multilateral agreement under the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals. The Raptors MOU aims to promote internationally coordinated actions to achieve and maintain the favourable conservation status of migratory birds of prey throughout their range in the African-Eurasian region and where appropriate reverse their decline. In addition, the species is also listed under Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species which controls the trade of endangered species through various restrictions. South Africa is a signatory to both Conventions and the Raptors MOU with the obligation to ensure that the principles of these treaties are adopted.
Conservation Measures Proposed
- A comprehensive, long-term monitoring program covering a substantial number of roosts is urgently required.
- An inventory of roost sites and a coordinated monitoring of roost sites to obtain regional population numbers is required. In this regard note should be taken of recommendations made in Ward et al. (2008) and taking into account the numbers obtained by Colahan (2008) in the Free State, priority should be given to the roosts in this province.
- The species roosts in large numbers often in stands of exotic trees. Awareness and protection of these roost trees are important particularly where these trees may be removed as part of alien vegetation eradication programmes or to specifically displace birds.
Research Priorities and Questions
- While many studies have analysed the migration and non-breeding ecology of Western birds, with hundreds of individuals tracked to their Sahelian non-breeding areas in recent years, little is known about the movements and migrations of the Asian lineage. Moreover, while the genetic structure of the Western lineage is quite well defined, much less data is available for the very broad (and hardly accessible) range of the Asian lineage (Ferrer-Obiol et al. submitted). Putative breeding areas of the individuals spending the non-breeding period in South Africa may range from Israel to Mongolia, potentially including the entire distribution of the Eastern lineage. The migration undertaken by Asian Lesser Kestrels between South Africa and East Asia may constitute one of the longest migrations among raptors and land birds in general, with travel distances exceeding 10 – 12 000 km on each migration leg. Tracking the migrations of Lesser Kestrels from South Africa to their breeding grounds is now highly feasible using miniaturised satellite transmitters and constitutes a unique opportunity to improve our knowledge about the fascinating migrations of this threatened evolutionary lineage. Thus, tracking of individuals would assist in determining whether declines observed regionally reflect changing migratory patterns, or a declining population.
- Understanding where Lesser Kestrel movements overlap with intensive use of harmful chemicals will enable us to work to reduce the exposure and impacts of these substances.
- Define the exact breeding areas and migratory behaviour of Lesser Kestrels from the Asian lineage spending the non-breeding season in South Africa, by tracking their migratory journeys using miniaturised satellite (GPS GSM) transmitters
- Characterise habitat use and preferences of Lesser Kestrels during the period they spend in South Africa, to provide suggestions for effective conservation and management
- Improve our knowledge of genetic diversity and structure of the Asian Lesser Kestrel lineage, including potentially admixed populations from the Middle East.
- Regional population size needs to be established.
- Roost counts at key roosting sites should be re-instated to better understand long term population fluctuations.
- A number of studies have been undertaken using radio nuclides and isotope analyses yet there is still uncertainty around the origin of the birds visiting the region necessitating further research into this aspect.
Contributors & References
Assessor/s
Kevin Shaw, Gareth Tate
Reviewer/s
Sanjo Rose, David Ehlers Smith
References
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BirdLife International. 2013. Falco naumanni. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2013: e.T22696357A40742561. Available: https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-2.RLTS.T22696357A40742561.en. [Accessed on 01 September 2024].
BirdLife International. 2021a. Falco naumanni. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2021: e.T22696357A205768513. Available: https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T22696357A205768513.en. [Accessed on 01 September 2024].
BirdLife International. 2021b. Falco naumanni (Europe assessment). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2021: e.T22696357A166306288. Available: https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T22696357A166306288.en. [Accessed on 02 September 2024].
BirdLife International. 2024. Species factsheet: Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni. Available: https://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/lesser-kestrel-falco-naumanni. [Accessed on 02 September 2024].
Brooks M, Rose S, Altwegg R, Lee ATK, Nel H, Ottosson U, Retief E, Reynolds C, Ryan PG, Shema S, Tende T, Underhill LG, Thomson RL. 2022. The African Bird Atlas Project: a description of the project and BirdMap data-collection protocol. Ostrich 93(4): 223–232. https://doi.org/10.2989/00306525.2022.2125097.
Colahan BD. 1993. Status of the Lesser Kestrel in urban and peri-urban areas in the Orange Free State, South Africa. Mirafra 10: 33–39.
Colahan BD, van Niekerk DJ. 2008. The Lesser Kestrel at communal roosts in the Free State – a coordinated survey. Poster presented at the 12th Pan African Ornithological Congress, Rawsonville, South Africa, 7–12 September 2008.
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Corso A, Sternini L, Vegan M, Jansen JJFJ. 2015. A quantitative morphological geographical study from a widely distributed raptor: the Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni Fleischer, 1818 (Falconiformes: Falconidae). Biodiversity Journal 6: 285–296.
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Kopij G. 2002. Food of the Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni) in its winter quarters in South Africa. Journal of Raptor Research 36: 148–152.
Lee ATK, Hammer SAJ .2022. A comparison of migrant and resident bird population changes in South Africa using citizen science data: trends in relation to Northern Hemisphere distribution. Ostrich 93(3): 160-170. DOI: 10.2989/00306525.2022.2145383.
Lee ATK. 2024. Regional Red Data Book of the Birds of South Africa, Lesotho and Eswatini: SABAP2 synthesis and supporting information and graphics for Lesser Kestrel. Unpublished report. Johannesburg: BirdLife South Africa.
McCann K. 1997. Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni. In: Harrison JA, Allan DG, Underhill LG, Herremans M, Tree AJ, Parker V, Brown CJ (eds), The atlas of southern African birds. Vol. 1: Non-passerines. BirdLife South Africa, Johannesburg. pp 468–469.
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Meyburg B, Howey P, Meyburg C, Pretorius R. 2017. Year-round satellite tracking of Amur Falcon (Falco amurensis) reveals the longest migration of any raptor species across the open sea. Poster presented at the British Ornithologists’ Union Annual Conference, University of Warwick, UK, 28–30 March 2017.
Mihoub J, Gimenez O, Pilard P, Sarrazin F. 2010. Challenging conservation of migratory species—Sahelian rainfalls drive first-year survival of the vulnerable Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni. Biological Conservation 143: 839–847.
Mphetlhe R. 2023. Quantifying national abundance changes of raptors across Botswana using repeat road surveys. Unpublished MSc Thesis. Percy FitzPatrick Institute, University of Cape Town.
Oatley TB, Oschadleus HD, Navarro RA, Underhill LG. 1998. Review of ring recoveries of birds of prey in southern Africa: 1948–1998. Johannesburg: Endangered Wildlife Trust.
Orta J, Kirwan GM. 2020. Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni). In: del Hoyo J, Elliott A, Sargatal J, Christie DA, de Juana E (eds), Birds of the World, version 1.0. Ithaca, NY, USA: Cornell Lab of Ornithology, https://doi.org/10.2173/bow.leskes1.01.
Pepler D, Martin M, Fouché F, van Hensbergen B. 1994. Radionuclide analysis of Lesser Kestrels Falco naumanni and the origins of populations overwintering in southern Africa. Ostrich 65: 122–126.
Pepler D. 2000. Lesser Kestrel. In: Barnes KN (ed). The Eskom Red Data Book of Birds of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Johannesburg: BirdLife South Africa. pp 90–92.
Pescador M, Ramirez JIG, Peris SJ. 2019. Effectiveness of a mitigation measure for the Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni) in wind farms in Spain. Journal of Environmental Management 231: 919–925.
Symes CT, Woodborne S. 2010. Migratory connectivity and conservation of the Amur Falcon Falco amurensis: a stable isotope perspective. Bird Conservation International 20: 134–148.
Taylor MR, Peacock F, Wanless RW (eds). 2015. Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni. In: The Eskom Red Data Book of Birds of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Johannesburg: BirdLife South Africa. pp 429.
Ward D, Pepler D, Botha R. 2008. The influence of sample size on the determination of population trends in the vulnerable Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni overwintering in South Africa. Ostrich 79: 199–204.
Westrip JRS, Cherkaoui I, Saheb M, Essetti I, Fellous-Djardini A, Benmammar Hasnaoui H, Cuzin F, Radi M, Onrubia A, Noaman M, Garrido López JR. 2022. Falco naumanni (Mediterranean assessment). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2022: e.T22696357A210512944. [Accessed on 02 September 2024].
Citation
Shaw K, Tate G 2025. Lesser Kestrel. In: Lee ATK, Rose S, Banda S, Bezeng SB, Maphalala MI, Maphisa DH, Smit-Robinson H (eds), The 2025 Red Data Book of Birds of South Africa, Lesotho and Eswatini. Johannesburg, South Africa: BirdLife South Africa. Available at: https://www.birdlife.org.za/red-list/lesser-kestrel/
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