Southern Rockhopper Penguin
Eudyptes chrysocome
Number Of Mature
Individuals (Regional)
192 000
Regional
Population Trend
Decreasing
2025
Regional Category
Endangered
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CONTENTSOverview
Names
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IOC English Name: |
Southern Rockhopper Penguin |
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SA & IOC Scientific Name: |
Eudyptes chrysocome |
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BirdLife International Taxonomy (scientific name): |
Eudyptes chrysocome |
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Order: |
SPHENISCIFORMES |
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Family: |
Spheniscidae |
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Species name author: |
Forster 1781 |
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Afrikaans: |
Suidelike Geelkuifpikkewyn |
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Sesotho (South Africa): |
Phenkwine ya motlwenyakgutshwane |
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Sesotho (Lesotho): |
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Siswati: |
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Zulu: |
inguzeqamatshe yaseNingizimu |
Current Assessment Status
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2025 Regional Category [Criteria] |
EN [A2a] |
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2024 Global Category [Criteria] |
VU [A2abcde+3bcde+4abcde] |
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Population size (Regional) |
96 000 pairs (58 000 pairs at Marion Island in 2021/2022; 38 000 at Prince Edward Island in 2008) |
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Population size (Global) |
2 500 000 mature individuals (BirdLife International 2020) |
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Distribution size (EOO) (Regional) km2 |
<554 000 – 785 000 (breeding; foraging) |
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Distribution size (EOO) (Global) km2 |
13 100 000 (breeding/resident) |
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Distribution size (AOO) (Regional) km2 |
<334 (breeding) |
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Generation time |
10.95 years (Guinard et al. 1998) |
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Status change reason |
No Change |
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Migrant (in the region) |
Full Migrant |
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Regional endemic |
No |
Historic Listing Information
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2000 Regional Status |
NT [A1acde] |
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2015 Regional Status |
EN [A2b+3b+4b] |
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Status change reason (if applicable) |
Genuine (recent) |
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2015 Population size (Regional) |
94 000 – 103 000 pairs |
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2015 Global Status |
VU [A2abcde+3bcde+4abcde] |
Reason for Inclusion
Reason for Inclusion in the Assessment
The species breeds at the Prince Edwards Islands (PEIs) and was listed in regional assessments as Near Threatened and Endangered in 2000 and 2015, respectively (Dyer and Crawford 2015).
Category Justification
Category Justification
The population of Southern Rockhopper Penguin Eudyptes chrysocome (also regarded as Eastern Rockhopper penguin Eudyptes filholi; Frugone et al. 2021) at Marion Island within the PEIs decreased by 66% (115 000 pairs) over 27 years, from 173 000 pairs in 1994/95 to 58 000 pairs in 2021/22. This equates to a decrease of up to 80.3% in three generations (G) satisfying criterion A2a for listing as regionally Critically Endangered (CR). However, that is on the borderline (80%) between CR and Endangered (EN) and an annual rate of decline using the IUCN recommended exponential model puts the decline at 73%. Given the still large global population, a regional rescue effect is potentially feasible. Therefore, it is recommended to retain the listing of EN, pending collection of further data.
Population Justification
The global population was quantified at 1 000 000 – 2 499 999 mature individuals in 2014 (BirdLife International 2020) and 2 500 000 in 2020 (BirdLife International 2020). In 2021/22, c. 58 000 pairs were counted at Marion Island (Department of Forestry, Fisheries and Environment, DFFE, unpubl data). An estimated 38 000 pairs bred at Prince Edward Island in 2008 (Crawford et al. 2009c). Therefore, the overall regional population at the PEIs is of the order of 96 000 pairs.
Trend Justification
In 2014, the global population was thought to have undergone a decrease of c. 30% over three generations, which had been driven largely by the decline at the Falklands (where data were most complete) and, to a lesser extent, at Marion Island (BirdLife International 2020). The global population was believed to still be diminishing in 2020 (BirdLife International 2020). In 1987/88, 137 652 pairs of Southern Rockhopper Penguins were counted at Marion Island, increasing to 173 000 pairs in 1994/95. This fell to c. 61 000 pairs in 2008/09 (Crawford et al. 2003, Crawford et al. 2009). About 56 000 pairs were counted in 2009/10 (Dyer and Crawford 2015). Between 1994/95 and 2012/13, nine whole-island counts of Southern Rockhopper Penguins at Marion Island indicated a significant reduction in the population (Dyer and Crawford 1995). In 2021/22, 58 000 pairs bred at Marion Island (DFFE unpubl data). At Prince Edward Island, counts of Southern Rockhopper Penguins fell from 45 000 pairs in 2001 to 38 000 pairs in 2008, despite better coverage in the latter period (Crawford et al. 2009). For Northern Rockhopper Penguin, age at first breeding (A) was 4.7 years and adult survival (ϕ a) was 0.84 p.a. (Guinard et al. 1998). Assuming the same parameters for E. chrysocome and given G = A + (1 / (1 − ϕ a)) (Birdlife International 2020), G = 10.95 years. At Marion Island, the decrease in counts between 1994/95 and 2021/22 was 66% in 27 years, equivalent to just more than 73% in 3G.
Biology & Ecology
Taxonomy
Eudyptes chrysocome (s.l.) was split into Southern Rockhopper E. chrysocome and Northern Rockhopper E. moseleyi penguins following Jouventin et al. (2006) based on morphological, vocal and genetic differences. E. chrysocome (s.s.) is considered polytypic, with two races: the nominate chrysocome breeds from Cape Horn to the Falkland Islands, while filholi breeds at various Subantarctic islands. Although filholi has been proposed as a further split from E. chrysocome, this taxon is not currently split by BirdLife International (2020).
Identification
55 cm, 3.35 kg. A robust penguin with white underparts and blue-black or slate-grey upperparts. A straight yellow eyebrow, ending in sideways projecting yellow plumes, does not meet between the eyes. The pink fleshy gape and bare pink skin continue down the underside of the lower mandible. Eyes red. Short bill (larger in males than females) reddish brown. Feet pink. Immature birds have only a narrow supercilium and a pale mottled grey chin. Juveniles are similarly marked but differ in having greyer eyes and lacking distinct crest feathers. The Southern Rockhopper Penguin differs from the Northern Rockhopper Penguin in having a narrower supercilium, shorter plumes reaching just over the black throat, and less extensive markings on the underside of the flippers at their tips (BirdLife International 2020).
Distribution
The subspecies E. c. chrysocome occurs in southern Chile, Argentina, at the Falkland Islands and South Georgia in the south-west Atlantic Ocean. E. c. filholi occurs at the PEIs, Crozet Islands, Kerguelen Islands and Heard Island in the south Indian Ocean and at Macquarie, Campbell, Antipodes and Auckland islands in the southwest Pacific Ocean. Its latitudinal range for breeding varies from 46° S at the Crozet Islands to 54° S at Macquarie Island (BirdLife International 2020). Southern Rockhopper Penguins breed around the coasts of Prince Edward and Marion islands, which have surface areas of about 45 km2 and 290 km2, respectively. The Area of Occupancy of Southern Rockhopper Penguins at the PEIs will be <335 km2, the sum of these areas. During incubation male Southern Rockhopper Penguins may forage up to 500 km from breeding sites (Pütz et al. 2013). During chick rearing, Southern Rockhopper Penguins at Marion Island may forage up to 420 km from the island (Whitehead 2017). Hence their EOO during breeding was roughly calculated as < πr2 (where r = 420–500 km), so <554 000–785 000 km2. This figure does not exclude the areas not used by the birds. Birds tracked during their breeding season used areas west of Marion Island, as well as north to northeast, and southeast of the island (Whitehead 2017). In their winter inter-breeding period, birds moved mainly northeast of Marion Island (Thiebot et al. 2013).
Ecology
From late October, Southern Rockhopper Penguins return to their breeding colonies at Marion Island, which range from sea-level sites to cliff tops. Males arrive at colonies for breeding several days earlier than the females (Crawford et al. 2003, 2006). Pairs lay two eggs from late November to early December, the first egg being smaller than the second egg (Williams 1980). The incubation period is 36 – 38 days (Williams 1980) and the fledging period is about 70 days (Marchant and Higgins 1990). At most breeding sites, including the PEIs, only one chick is fledged by each successful pair (Williams 1980). From February to mid-March, the chicks fledge and depart the colony (Crawford et al. 2003). After breeding, adults go to sea to gain weight for about a month before returning to their islands to moult. They remain ashore for 20 – 30 days to replace all their feathers (Brown 1986), before departing for the winter period. Southern Rockhopper Penguins are opportunistic feeders, preying on a variety of crustaceans, fish and cephalopods (Crawford et al. 2003, Whitehead 2017). During the breeding seasons of 1983/84 – 1985/86, crustaceans, mainly the decapod shrimp Nauticaris marionis and the pelagic euphausiid Euphausia vallentini, constituted 85% by mass of the food at Marion Island (Brown and Klages 1987). Since 1994/95, N. marionis has been less important in the diet at Marion Island, whereas the euphausiid Thyssanoesa vicina has become an important prey item (Dyer and Crawford 2015).
Threats & Conservation
Threats
Inadequate breeding success was a major factor driving the decrease of Southern Rockhopper Penguins at Marion Island (Crawford et al. 2003). Overwintering conditions were thought to influence the proportions of penguins skipping breeding, and breeding success (Crawford et al. 2006). Mass of individual birds returning to Marion Island to breed decreased by about 20% between 1994/95 and 2007/08 and was significantly correlated with breeding success (Crawford et al. 2008). Global climate change may have altered availability of prey to rockhopper penguins (Cunningham and Moors 1994, Guinard et al. 1998). In 1992, 1993 and 2004, disease, including avian cholera Pasteurella multocida, killed substantial numbers of King Penguins Aptenodytes patagonicus and Macaroni Penguins E. chrysolophus at Marion Island (Cooper et al. 2009). Avian cholera also caused deaths of Southern Rockhopper Penguins at Campbell Island (Cunningham and Moors 1994). There were large decreases of Southern Rockhopper Penguins at Campbell Island in the southwest Pacific Ocean (Cunningham and Moors 1994) and at the Falkland Islands in the southwest Atlantic Ocean (Pütz et al. 2003) but the ecological and demographic drivers of rockhopper penguin decreases were not fully understood (BirdLife International 2020). At the Falkland Islands, fisheries may have reduced quantities of fish and squid available to Southern Rockhopper Penguins (Bingham 2002). Starvation and poisoning from harmful algal blooms may cause die-offs of rockhopper penguins (BirdLife International 2020). An oil spill killed substantial numbers of Northern Rockhopper Penguins at Nightingale Island (Tristan da Cunha Islands) in 2011. There was indication that rockhopper penguins declined at several sites where there were major recoveries of fur seals Arctocephalus spp. (BirdLife International 2020). Recoveries of fur seals at the PEIs (Bester et al. 2009) could increase competition for prey and predation of penguins. Giant petrels Macronectes spp., Subantarctic Skuas Stercorarius antarcticus and Lesser Sheathbills Chionis minor may also inflict mortality (Dyer and Crawford 2015).
Conservation Measures Underway
At Marion Island, there are strict guidelines in place for offloading diesel. Poultry products supplied to the overwintering teams at Marion Island, or used during relief voyages to the island, do not contain bones and are irradiated to reduce the risk of introducing avian diseases. A contingency plan is in place to guide responses to outbreaks of disease at the PEIs. No access is allowed to Prince Edward Island except for bona fide research and conservation purposes. The Prince Edward Islands Marine Protected Area was proclaimed in 2013. The PEIs are listed as a Ramsar Wetland of International Importance, as a Special Nature Reserve under the Environment Conservation Act (No 73 of 1989) and the Prince Edward Islands Management Plan 1996.
Conservation Measures Proposed
A Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) is recommended, as is a National Species Recovery Plan. Monitoring of population numbers and demographic, diet and condition parameters at Marion Island should be continued. Best-practice guidelines for reducing risk of disease outbreaks at islands are being developed by the Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels. Once available, these guidelines should replace those presently operating at the PEIs. Overwintering teams should be given basic training in the rescue and rehabilitation of oiled penguins. The impact of any proposed fishery on the prey of Southern Rockhopper Penguins should be carefully assessed before such a fishery is allowed. Consideration should be given to declaring marine protected areas at important feeding grounds of Southern Rockhopper Penguins.
Research Priorities and Questions
- It is important to understand how food availability for Southern Rockhopper Penguins fluctuates at both summer and winter feeding-grounds, and to what extent the penguins compete with other predators for prey.
- Further information is required on the foraging distributions, especially during breeding, and on adult and immature survival and age at breeding of Southern Rockhopper Penguins at Marion Island.
- Implantation of transponder tags may assist in determining demographic parameters.
- Levels of mortality attributable to avian and mammalian predators should be assessed.
- Updated counts of Southern Rockhopper Penguins at Prince Edward Island are required.
Contributors & References
Assessor/s
Azwianewi Makhado, Robert Crawford
Reviewer/s
Pierre Pistorius
References
Bester MN, Ryan PG, Visagie J. 2009. Summer survey of fur seals at Prince Edward Island, southern Indian Ocean. African Journal of Marine Science 36: 451–455.
Bingham M. 2002. The decline of Falkland Islands penguins in the presence of a commercial fishing industry. Revista Chilena de Historia Natural 75: 805–818.
BirdLife International. 2020. Eudyptes chrysocome. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2020: e.T22735250A182762377. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T22735250A182762377.en. [Accessed on 17 January 2025].
Brown CR. 1986. Feather growth, mass loss and duration of moult in Macaroni and Rockhopper Penguins. Ostrich 57: 180–184.
Brown CR, Klages NT[W]. 1987. Seasonal and annual variation in the diets of macaroni (Eudyptes chrysolophus chrysolophus) and southern rockhopper (E. chrysocome chrysocome) penguins at sub-Antarctic Marion Island. Journal of Zoology, London 212: 7–28.
Cooper J, Crawford RJM, de Villiers MS, Dyer BM, Hofmeyr GJG, Jonker A. 2009. Disease outbreaks among penguins at sub-Antarctic Marion Island: a conservation concern. Marine Ornithology 37: 193–196.
Crawford RJM, Cooper J, Dyer BM, Greyling MD, Klages NTW, Nel DC, Nel JL, Petersen SL, Wolfaardt AC. 2003. Decrease in numbers of the Eastern Rockhopper Penguin Eudyptes chrysocome filholi at Marion Island, 1994/95–2002/03. African Journal of Marine Science 25: 487–498.
Crawford RJM, Dyer BM, Cooper J, Underhill LG. 2006. Breeding numbers and success of Eudyptes penguins at Marion Island, and the influence of mass and time of arrival of adults. CCAMLR Science 13: 175–190.
Crawford RJM, Makhado AB, Upfold L, Dyer BM. 2008. Mass on arrival of Rockhopper Penguins at Marion Island correlated with breeding success. African Journal of Marine Science 30: 185–188.
Crawford RJM, Whittington PA, Upfold L, Ryan PG, Petersen SL, Dyer BM, Cooper J. 2009. Recent trends in four species of penguin at the Prince Edward Islands. African Journal of Marine Science 31: 419–426.
Cunningham DM, Moors PJ. 1994. The decline of rockhopper penguins Eudyptes chrysocome at Campbell Island, Southern Ocean and the influence of rising sea temperatures. Emu 94: 27–36.
Dyer BM, Crawford RJM. 2015. Southern Rockhopper Penguin Eudyptes chrysocome. In: Taylor MR, Wanless RM, Peacock F (eds). The Eskom Red Data Book of Birds of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. BirdLife South Africa; Johannesburg: pp. 152–154.
Frugone MJ, Cole TL, López ME, Clucas G, Matos-Maraví P, Lois NA, Pistorius, P, Bonadonna F, Trathan P, Polanowski A, Wienecke B, Raya-Rey A, Pütz K, Steinfurth A, Bi K, Wang-Claypool CY, Waters JM, Bowie RCK, Poulin E, Vianna JA. 2021. Taxonomy based on limited genomic markers may underestimate species diversity of rockhopper penguins and threaten their conservation. Diversity and Distributions 27: 2277–2296. https://doi.org/10.1111/ddi.13399
Guinard E, Weimerskirch H, Jouventin P. 1998. Population changes and demography of the northern rockhopper penguin on Amsterdam and Saint Paul Islands. Colonial Waterbirds 21: 222–228.
Jouventin P, Cuthbert R, Ottvall R. 2006. Genetic isolation and divergence in sexual traits: evidence for the northern rockhopper penguin Eudyptes moseleyi being a sibling species. Molecular Ecology 15: 3413–3423.
Marchant S, Higgins PJ (co-ordinators) 1990. Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. 1. Ratites to Ducks. Melbourne: Oxford University Press
Putz K, Clausen AP, Huin N, Croxall JP. 2003. Re-evaluation of historical rockhopper penguin population data in the Falkland Islands. Waterbirds 26: 169–175.
Pütz K, Raya Rey A, Otley H. 2013. Southern Rockhopper Penguin (Eudyptes chrysocome). In: Garcia Borboroglu P, Boersma PD (eds), Penguins Natural History and Conservation. University of Washington Press; Seattle and London pp 113–129.
Thiebot J-B, Cherel Y, Crawford RJM, Makhado AB, Trathan PN, et al. 2013. A Space Oddity: Geographic and Specific Modulation of Migration in Eudyptes Penguins. PLoS ONE 8(8): e71429.
Whitehead TO. 2017. Comparative foraging ecology of macaroni and rockhopper penguins at the Prince Edward Islands. PhD Thesis: University of Cape Town.
Williams AJ. 1980. Rockhopper penguins Eudyptes chrysocome at Gough Island. Bulletin of the British Ornithologists Club 100: 208–212.
Citation
Makhado A, Crawford RJM 2025. Southern Rockhopper Penguin. In: Lee ATK, Rose S, Banda S, Bezeng SB, Maphalala MI, Maphisa DH, Smit-Robinson H (eds), The 2025 Red Data Book of Birds of South Africa, Lesotho and Eswatini. Johannesburg, South Africa: BirdLife South Africa. Available at: https://www.birdlife.org.za/red-list/southern-rockhopper-penguin/
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