White-winged Flufftail
Sarothrura ayresi
Number Of Mature
Individuals (Regional)
1 800
Regional
Population Trend
Decreasing
2025
Regional Category
Endangered
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CONTENTSOverview
Names
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IOC English Name: |
White-winged Flufftail |
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SA & IOC Scientific Name: |
Sarothrura ayresi |
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BirdLife International Taxonomy (scientific name): |
Sarothrura ayresi |
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Order: |
GRUIFORMES |
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Family: |
Sarothruridae |
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Species name author: |
Gurney 1877 |
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Afrikaans: |
Witvlerkvleikuiken |
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Sesotho (South Africa): |
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Sesotho (Lesotho): |
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Siswati: |
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Zulu: |
ubhavuzilomhlophe |
Current Assessment Status
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2025 Regional Category [Criteria] |
EN [B2ab(iii)] |
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2024 Global Category [Criteria] |
CR [C2a(i)] (Evans et al. 2015) |
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Population size (Regional) |
1800 (Lloyd et al. in prep) |
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Population size (Global) |
1910 (Lloyd et al. in prep, Colyn et al. 2020a) |
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Distribution size (EOO) (Regional) km2 |
49 094 (Lloyd et al. in prep) |
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Distribution size (EOO) (Global) km2 |
183 000 (BirdLife International 2021) |
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Distribution size (AOO) (Regional) km2 |
20 (Lloyd et al. in prep) |
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Generation time |
Unknown |
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Status change reason |
Improved knowledge |
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Migrant (in the region) |
Yes |
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Regional endemic |
No |
Historic Listing Information
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2000 Regional Status |
CR [A2c; B1a+2ad+3ac; C1+2a] |
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2015 Regional Status |
CR [B2ab(i,ii,iii,iv); C1+2a(i); D] |
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Status change reason (if applicable) |
Not applicable |
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2015 Population size (Regional) |
<50 mature individuals |
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2015 Global Status |
CR [A2c+3c+4c; B1(i,ii,iii,iv); C2a(i); D1+2] |
Reason for Inclusion
Reason for Inclusion in the Assessment
The White-winged Flufftail Sarothrura ayresi was previously listed as globally and regionally Critically Endangered in 2015 (Evans et al. 2015). It is suspected that 95–99% of the global breeding population occurs within the region. In Ethiopia, the only other country where the species is known to breed, there is enough habitat to support a maximum of 55 breeding pairs at one site (Berga Wetland). The two remaining known historical sites in the Ethiopian Highlands are no longer suitable (Colyn et al. 2020a).
Category Justification
Category Justification
Recent surveys in South Africa using passive monitoring equipment have allowed for empirical estimates of the White-winged Flufftail’s home range, habitat suitability, and potential population size (Lloyd et al. in prep). Only 20 km2 of suitable wetland habitat remains in the region, which can support 900 adult breeding pairs (1800 mature individuals). Given that high-elevation wetlands continue to be destroyed, degraded, and fragmented by various land-use activities, the geographic range criterion is preferred. Consequently, the regional threat status of the species is downlisted from Critically Endangered to Endangered [B2ab(iii)].
Population Justification
An array of motion-detected camera traps (n = 17, 35–40 m apart) were deployed at Middelpunt Nature Reserve, Mpumalanga Province, during the 2021-2022 breeding season (November to March). The continuous occurrence of an individually recognisable adult male observed at the monitoring stations with adult female presence suggests an approximate breeding home range of 22 201 m2 (0.0222 km2 or 2.22 ha) (Lloyd et al. in prep).
Habitat suitability was modelled for the species using 61 records collected between 2005 and 2025 (43 records from dedicated surveys along the Eastern Escarpment of South Africa, 2020-2025). The resulting model performed well (AUC = 0.996 ± 0.002 (s.d.)). Given the highly variable and dynamic nature of high-elevation, seasonal, vegetated wetlands in the mesic parts of the region, the limited number of recent presence records, and the declining health of inland wetlands in the region (Skowno et al. 2019), a high likelihood of suitability of 70% was used. Transformed or non-natural habitat was then removed, resulting in a predicted Area of Occupancy (AOO) of 20 km2 (Lloyd et al. in prep). Point data from the 61 records estimate an Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of 49 094 km2 in the region (Lloyd et al. in prep).
Extrapolating from the home range and AOO, the region can support 900 adult breeding pairs (1800 mature individuals assuming an equal sex ratio) (Lloyd et al. in prep).
Trend Justification
Wetlands continue to be destroyed and degraded in the region and globally (Skowno et al. 2019). The replacement of sedge-mix vegetation communities by monocultures of native pioneer plant species (Phragmites and Typha) in response to catchment disturbances (e.g., excess sediments and nutrients) renders wetlands unsuitable for the White-winged Flufftail. It is assumed, therefore, that the regional population is declining as suitable wetland habitat is lost.
Biology & Ecology
Taxonomy
There are no recognised subspecies and no notable issues.
Identification
13.5–14.5 cm, c. 34–39 g. In flight, the white secondary flight feathers are a diagnostic feature of both sexes, while the black and rufous barred tail distinguishes it from other wetland-inhabiting flufftails in the region. Sexes are dimorphic in plumage colouration. Adult males have a dark brown crown with more brown markings on the sides of the head, a white throat and belly, and a chestnut neck and breast. Adult females have less chestnut and more buff mottled upperparts but also have a white belly. Juveniles and immatures are darker grey-brown with increasing chestnut colouration as they mature. Chicks are fluffy black with a white-creamy colouration at the base and tip of the bill (Taylor 2005).
Distribution
Recent passive monitoring surveys and infield observations across the Eastern Escarpment of the region during the wet/summer season (2020-2025) have revealed the presence of the White-winged Flufftail at several new and historical sites on both state and privately managed land (Lloyd et al. in prep). Due to the threat status of the species and the sensitive nature of its wetland habitat, the exact locations cannot be listed or displayed. In summary, 23 new locations (after 2015) were discovered with seven historical locations (before 2015) confirmed to recently host the species, including Middelpunt Nature Reserve, Verloren Valei Nature Reserve, Seekoeivlei Nature Reserve, Golden Gate National Park, Coleford Nature Reserve, Ntsikeni Nature Reserve, and Hebron Vlei. The distribution during the austral wet season ranges from northern Mpumalanga Province to southern KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa. Since 2005, sixteen locations have been recorded in the Mpumalanga Province (seven within protected areas), five locations in the Free State Province (three within protected areas), one location in the Gauteng Province (unprotected), and twelve locations in KwaZulu-Natal Province (seven within protected areas). Core areas for the White-winged Flufftail in South Africa appear to be situated in the Dullstroom/eMakhazeni area (Mpumalanga), Wakkerstroom/Groenvlei/Memel area (Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, and Free State), Mooi River/Howick area (KwaZulu-Natal), and Ntsikeni area (KwaZulu-Natal).
Ecology
The White-winged Flufftail is found in high-elevation wetlands (1400–2200 m asl; Lloyd et al. in prep) within the Grassland Biome along the Eastern Escarpment of the region. The birds breed in these seasonal wetlands during the austral wet season (October-March), with recent breeding records confirmed at two locations (Colyn et al. 2020b, Lloyd et al. in prep) and breeding behaviour observed at several sites along the range (e.g., breeding calls and male-female pairs; Lloyd et al. in prep). Chicks were with adult female and male birds between late November and late February (Colyn et al. 2020b, Lloyd et al. in prep). The wetland vegetation community used by the species comprises sedge-grass-herb mixes, with the sedges Carex austro-africana and Cyperus denudatus being dominant, and the grasses Leersia hexandra and Arundinella nepalensis co-dominant (Marais et al. 2021). Water depths vary with the species observed in shallowly flooded to moist/saturated areas of wetlands (pers obs). It is unknown where the species overwinters, and the migration pathways are yet to be discovered. Genetic analysis of nuclear and mitochondrial markers revealed no differences at the species or subspecies level between South African (n = 3) and Ethiopian (n = 7) birds (Dalton et al. 2018), but any potential gene flow between the two populations remains unclear, and it is not impossible that unknown sites may connect them. Genetic diversity is low in the innate immune regions of the global population, similar to other bird species that have undergone population bottlenecks, which may render the White-winged Flufftail vulnerable to stochastic environmental events, such as disease outbreaks (Dalton et al. 2016). The call was recently described as metallic staccato “chit” notes used in three, four, and five-note strophes (Colyn et al. 2020b). Like other rallid species, the alarm call appears composed of a single chit proceeded by a rapid trill. The birds are most acoustically active during the early morning and late afternoon to dusk (Colyn et al. 2020b).
Threats & Conservation
Threats
The primary threat to the White-winged Flufftail is the destruction and degradation of its specialised wetland habitat. The quantity and quality of wetland inputs (water, sediment, soil, and nutrients) from the surrounding catchment are altered or modified by land-use activities such as mining, agriculture (cultivation, livestock, and dairy), forestry, dams, and incorrectly installed or unmaintained infrastructure. Alien invasive trees are extensive within high-elevation catchments, resulting in reduced water inputs to downstream wetlands through evapotranspiration. Ecological processes that structure and maintain wetlands are applied incorrectly in favour of commercial productivity. For example, grazing and burning are key processes that remove the moribund vegetation that accumulates in these highly productive ecosystems, but are often misapplied (timing, frequency, and intensity) in the agricultural landscapes of the region’s mesic high-elevation grasslands. Secondary threats to the species are disturbance caused by people, namely birdwatchers, trampling the sensitive vegetation understory to flush them, and lack of knowledge which leaves aspects of its ecology unprotected (e.g., overwintering grounds and migration pathways). A potential emerging threat with unknown effects is the development of wind energy facilities along the Eastern Escarpment of the region. Flufftail species appear susceptible to wind turbine collisions, with carcasses of Red-chested Flufftail S. rufa, Striped Flufftail S. affinis, and Buff-spotted Flufftail S. elegans reported from several established wind energy facilities in the Eastern and Western Cape Provinces (BirdLife South Africa 2025). A powerline collision from Suikerbosrand, Gauteng Province, has also been recorded for the White-winged Flufftail (Wolff and Milstein 1976). Climate change may cause areas within the distributional range to become drier with other habitat-transforming effects, such as bush encroachment by woody native species.
Conservation Measures Underway
The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) and the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) list the White-winged Flufftail as needing the highest level of protection. The International Single Species Action Plan for the White-winged Flufftail (Sande et al. 2008) is actioned through the AEWA White-winged Flufftail International Working Group Implementation Plan, with objectives focussed on contracting countries, Ethiopia and South Africa, where regular presence records occur. BirdLife South Africa, Middelpunt Wetland Trust, Eskom’s Ingula Partnership, and provincial conservation authorities that form part of South Africa’s Department of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment White-winged Flufftail National Working Group actively conserve the species in the region. This involves a multi-pronged approach to safeguarding high-elevation wetlands with the following achievements since the previous review:
- Management
(a) Published Best Practice Guidelines for High-Elevation Wetland and Peatland Management in Southern Africa, including illustrations, to equip landowners with the knowledge to steward these complex ecosystems (Lloyd et al. 2025a). (b) Designed a wildlife-friendly for South African cattle farms with local farmers at Middelpunt Nature Reserve to control livestock grazing in wetlands while allowing wildlife to move freely through catchments.
- Protection
(a) Declared Middelpunt Nature Reserve, Mpumalanga Province, with private landowners, the first confirmed breeding site in southern Africa, and designated as a Wetland of International Importance (Ramsar). (b) Designated Ingula Nature Reserve as a Wetland of International Importance. (c) Declared the Greater Lakenvlei Protected Environment surrounding Middelpunt Nature Reserve to contribute approximately 21 000 ha of farmlands with the White-winged Flufftail recorded on several properties.
- Stewardship
(a) Improved the intrinsic value of wetland biodiversity by developing “how-to” infographics for citizen science applications and awareness material, and (b) the extrinsic value by establishing the Steenkampsberg Birding Routes, Mpumalanga Province, in a core White-winged Flufftail area. (c) Initiated a community project at Ntsikeni Nature Reserve, KwaZulu-Natal Province, with isiZulu Traditional Authorities to improve biosecurity and eco-tourism after discovering this important site for the White-winged Flufftail.
- Advocacy
(a) Published Guidelines for surveying and mitigating impacts on White-winged Flufftail in avifaunal assessments for development applications to provide expert advice to consultants (Lloyd et al. 2025b). (b) Developed a habitat suitability model for the species to assist development applications in site sensitivity assessments. (c) Halted and mitigated developments that could negatively impact wetlands suitable for the White-winged Flufftail.
- Awareness
(a) Hosted the Flufftail Festival annually from 2015 using the plight of the White-winged Flufftail to raise awareness about wetland and water issues. (b) Published children’s books with volunteers to raise awareness about species and habitat conservation, research, and birdwatching. (c) Developed short films and presented webinars to communicate the above outcomes to a diverse audience.
Conservation Measures Proposed
The protected area network must be expanded to encompass newly discovered sites for the White-winged Flufftail on private and communally owned land. This establishes a platform to implement biodiversity stewardship initiatives, namely communicating and applying high-elevation wetland management guidelines. Disturbances in wetlands and the surrounding catchment (especially alien invasive trees) must be removed and rehabilitated to restore wetland health. Legislation exists that regulates the use of wetland resources, but compliance regulation is limited to non-existent outside of protected areas in some parts of the bird’s distribution. Significant knowledge gaps about the bird’s biology and ecology must be addressed to inform conservation efforts.
Research Priorities and Questions
- Discover the migration pathways and overwintering grounds.
- Determine presence in countries throughout the Southern African region.
- Describe the fine-scale habitat requirements and sympatric faunal community.
- Describe the breeding biology and other aspects of the life cycle (e.g., phenology).
- Describe the climatic envelope occupied with climate change predictions.
- Determine the genetic relatedness and genetic diversity within the South African population and any potential connectivity with the Ethiopian populations.
- Describe the biogeography and ecological population trends to provide context to the present-day conservation status.
Contributors & References
Assessor/s
Kyle J. Lloyd
Reviewer/s
Hanneline A. Smit-Robinson, David Ehlers Smith
References
BirdLife International. 2021. Sarothrura ayresi. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2021: e.T22692245A179602552. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T22692245A179602552.en. [Accessed on 15 January 2025].
BirdLife South Africa. 2025. Summary Bird Monitoring Reports from Operational Wind Energy Facilities in South Africa. Technical Report by BirdLife South Africa.
Colyn RB, Howes-Whitecross MA, Howes C, Smit-Robinson HA. 2020a. Restricted breeding habitat of the Critically Endangered White-winged Flufftail in Ethiopia and its conservation implications. Ostrich 91: 204–213.
Colyn RB, Campbell A, Smit-Robinson HA. 2020b. The use of a camera trap and acoustic survey design to ascertain the vocalisation and breeding status of the highly elusive White-winged Flufftail Sarothrura ayresi. Avian Conservation & Ecology 15: 2.
Dalton DL, Vermaak E, Smit-Robinson HA, Kotzé A. 2016. Lack of diversity at innate immunity Toll-like receptor genes in the Critically Endangered White-winged Flufftail (Sarothrura ayresi). Scientific Reports 6: 36757–63665.
Dalton DL, Smit-Robinson HA, Vermaak E, Jarvis E, Kotzé A. 2018. Is there genetic connectivity among the Critically Endangered White-winged Flufftail (Sarothrura ayresi) populations from South Africa and Ethiopia? African Journal of Ecology 56: 28–37.
Evans SW, Smit-Robinson HA, Tarboton WR. 2015. White-winged Flufftail, Sarothrura ayresi. In: Taylor MR, Peacock F, Wanless RM (eds), The Eskom Red Data Book of Birds of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Johannesburg, South Africa: BirdLife South Africa.
Lloyd KJ, Muller M, Retief EF, Smit-Robinson HA. In prep. First comprehensive breeding distribution and population assessment of the White-winged Flufftail in South Africa: conservation implications for a highly threatened and elusive waterbird
Lloyd KJ, Muller M, Linström A, Grundling P-L, Pretorius L, Grundling RE, Smit-Robinson HA. 2025a. Best Practice Guidelines for High-Elevation Wetland and Peatland Management in Southern Africa, Version 1. Johannesburg, South Africa: BirdLife South Africa.
Lloyd KJ, Ralston-Paton S, Day KD, Retief E, Smit-Robinson HA. 2025b. Guidelines for surveying and mitigating impacts on White-winged Flufftail in avifaunal assessments for development applications, Version 1. Johannesburg, South Africa: BirdLife South Africa.
Marais AJ, Lloyd K, Smit-Robinson HA, Brown LR. 2021. A vegetation classification and description of White-winged Flufftail (Sarothrura ayresi) habitat at selected high-altitude peatlands in South Africa. Royal Society Open Science 8: 211482.
Sande E, Ndang’ang’a PK, Wakelin J, Wondafrash M, Drummond M, Dereliev S. 2008. International Single Species Action Plan for the Conservation of the White-winged Flufftail (Sarothrura ayresi). CMS Technical Series No. 19, AEWA Technical Series No. 38. Bonn, Germany.
Skowno AL, Poole CJ, Raimondo DC, Sink KJ, Van Deventer H, Van Niekerk L, Harris LR, Smith-Adao LB, Tolley KA, Zengeya TA, Foden WB, Midgley GF, Driver A. 2019. National Biodiversity Assessment 2018: The Status of South Africa’s Ecosystems and Biodiversity. Synthesis Report. Pretoria, South Africa: South African National Biodiversity Institute, Department of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries.
Taylor PB. 2005. White-winged Flufftail Sarothrura ayresi. In: Hockey PAR, Dean WRJ, Ryan PG (eds), Roberts – Birds of Southern Africa (7th Edn). Cape Town, South Africa: The Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund. pp 321–322.
Wolff S, Milstein P le S. 1976. Rediscovery of the White-winged Flufftail in South Africa. Bokmakierie 28: 33–36.
Citation
Lloyd KJ 2025. White-winged Flufftail. In: Lee ATK, Rose S, Banda S, Bezeng SB, Maphalala MI, Maphisa DH, Smit-Robinson H (eds), The 2025 Red Data Book of Birds of South Africa, Lesotho and Eswatini. Johannesburg, South Africa: BirdLife South Africa. Available at: https://www.birdlife.org.za/red-list/white-winged-flufftail/
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