Brian Roberts Image © Brian Roberts

White-backed Vulture

Gyps africanus

Number Of Mature
Individuals (Regional)

6 000

Regional
Population Trend

Decreasing

cr

2025
Regional Category

Critically Endangered

Search by species

CONTENTS
Loading navigation...

    Overview

    Names

    IOC English Name:

    White-backed Vulture

    SA & IOC Scientific Name:

    Gyps africanus

    BirdLife International Taxonomy (scientific name):

    The same as SA & IOC

    Order:

    ACCIPITRIFORMES

    Family:

    Accipitridae

    Species name author:

    Salvadori 1865

    Afrikaans:

    Witrugaasvoël

    Sesotho (South Africa):

    leaka

    Sesotho (Lesotho):

    le-aka

    Siswati:

    Lingce

    Zulu:

    inqe lehlanze

    Current Assessment Status

    2025 Regional Category [Criteria]

    CR [A4bd]

    2024 Global Category [Criteria]

    CR [A2abcd+3bcd+4abcd] (BirdLife International 2021)

    Population size (Regional)

    6000 mature individuals (c. 3000 breeding pairs)

    Population size (Global)

    67 823 mature individuals (43 229 – 117 089)

    Distribution size (EOO) (Regional) km2

    1 127 544 (Lee 2024)

    Distribution size (EOO) (Global) km2

    23 400 000 (BirdLife International 2021)

    Distribution size (AOO) (Regional) km2

    388 284 (Lee 2024)

    Generation time

    13.22 years

    Status change reason

    No change

    Migrant (in the region)

    No

    Regional endemic

    No

    Historic Listing Information

    2000 Regional Status

    VU [C1]

    2015 Regional Status

    CR [A4bcd]

    Status change reason (if applicable)

    Genuine change in status

    2015 Population size (Regional)

    7350 mature individuals (3675 breeding pairs)

    2015 Global Status

    CR [A2bcd+3bcd+4bcd]

    Reason for Inclusion

    Reason for Inclusion in the Assessment

    The White-backed Vulture Gyps africanus was first recognised as threatened in the second regional Red Data Book, where it was categorised as Vulnerable (Barnes 2000). The species is listed as globally Critically Endangered (BirdLife International 2021).

    Category Justification

    Category Justification

    The regional population of White-backed Vulture satisfies Criterion A (a population size reduction of >80% over three generations) based on monitoring of the former population stronghold, the Kruger National Park, where numbers have declined 40% in roughly 10 years, equivalent to an 84% decline over three generations.

    The regional population of White-backed Vulture continues to suffer additive mortality from wildlife poisoning and remains satisfactorily under the Critically Endangered category according to the A4 Criterion (population size reduction of at least 80% observed, estimated, inferred or projected to have started and is continuing and where the cause of the reduction has not ceased). The population has decreased since the last assessment and there is no evidence that the regional population is stable. With continuing large-scale poisoning incidents in many parts of the southern African range of this wide-ranging species, in particular the Greater Limpopo Transfrontier Area (GLTFA), the population is subject to catastrophic mortality events. In addition to the negative impacts related to poisonings are ongoing negative impacts related to electrical infrastructure (mainly powerlines).

    Population Justification

    The previous global population estimate of 270 000 mature individuals (Mundy et al. 1992) is now very much out of date given rapid population declines exceeding 80% across the species’ range in recent decades (Ogada et al. 2016, Shaw et al. 2024). Based on an annual median decline rate of 4.1% (Ogada et al. 2016), the global population in 2024 is estimated to be approximately 67 823 mature individuals, with a potential range of 43 229 – 117 089. The total southern African population was estimated to be 15 000 pairs or 40 000 individuals in the mid-1990s, but Allan (2015) adjusted this estimate to 3675 breeding pairs (or 7350 mature individuals) by 2015. These updated figures underscore the significant and ongoing decline in White-backed Vulture populations.

    Herholdt et al. (1997) estimated the Kruger National Park population at 600 – 1000 pairs in the mid-1990s but also highlighted that a large percentage of nests would have been overlooked during these surveys. Surveys focused on breeding vultures conducted between 2011 and 2013 placed the Kruger National Park population at 904 (95% CI ± 162) pairs (Murn et al. 2013). More recent surveys conducted between 2020 and 2023 places the number of breeding pairs remaining at 542; a reduction of 40% from the 2013 estimates, mainly attributable to ongoing poisoning incidents within the Greater Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area (Botha, Murn et al. In prep).

    Information on the number of breeding pairs in the Associated Private Nature Reserves (APNR) to the west of Kruger National Park is lacking, although surveys conducted by the Endangered Wildlife Trust (EWT), VulPro and Elephants Alive between 2013 and 2021 estimate 90 breeding pairs within Balule Nature Reserve. The EWT conducted aerial surveys along the Limpopo River in 2012, from the western boundary of Kruger National Park to Olifants Drift, and recorded 480 active nests, although this count is now outdated, and this area has been subjected to significant amounts of wildlife poisoning since that survey.

    The breeding population in North West province remains poorly assessed and may historically have contained several hundred pairs (Verdoorn 1997, 2004). Specific breeding localities include Wolmaransstad, Christiana, Bloemhof, Klerksdorp, Zeerust, Mmabatho, Mafikeng, Vryburg, Stella, Madikwe and Molopo, but details of nest numbers are lacking. Surveys conducted by VulPro in 2023 at Omega Farm, Bakoven, La Rancho Farm, Woodside Lodge and Woodside Cattle revealed 162 active nests. Information on the rest of the province is lacking.

    In the Free State province, the species has been recorded breeding since the mid-1980s at 12 localities, all in Kalahari Thornveld areas in the western parts of the province, and the population in the late 1990s ‘may be over 100 pairs’ (Colahan and Esterhuizen 1997). Most recently, apart from Dronfield Nature Reserve (which falls partially within Free State) the area remains understudied, with no information on Sandveld Nature Reserve or surrounding areas.

    In the Northern Cape, the population in the late 1990s was estimated at a maximum of 300 pairs (Anderson and Maritz 1997) but with increased information, this was subsequently revised to at least 500 pairs (Anderson 2004). Breeding occurs in four main localities: the greater Kimberley area, Askam (including the Kuruman River and Van Zylsrus), the South African portion of the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, and Mokala National Park (and surrounds). The greater Kimberley population was thought to number approximately 107 pairs in the late 1990s (Anderson and Maritz 1997) but in 2001 this population was counted in greater detail and 244 breeding pairs were located at six different localities (Murn et al. 2002). A repeat survey of the same greater Kimberley area in 2014 revealed an overall decrease in nests of 26% (Murn et al. 2017) and highlighted the variable nature of breeding areas, with some increasing dramatically (e.g. Dronfield Nature Reserve) and others decreasing or disappearing completely. In 2023 the greater Kimberley population numbered about 257 breeding pairs (as surveyed by the Dronfield White-backed Vulture Monitoring Project), including breeding pairs at Dronfield Nature Reserve and surrounds (n = 155), Benfontein (n = 30), Waterkolk (n = 27), Secretarius (n = 35), Graspan (n = 5) and Mauritzpan (n = 5). More detailed surveys conducted by the EWT at Mokala National Park and surrounds places the number of nests at 150. The Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park population was estimated at c. 25 during 1988-1990 (Herholdt and Anderson 2006) and by 2023 the EWT reported this population to have reduced to 18 active nests. The breeding population near Van Zylsrus was established in 1999 and the EWT estimated the number of active nests around Askham, the Kuruman River and Van Zylsrus at 490 as of 2023, although this estimate seems unusually high. In summary, as of 2023 and based on the breeding areas receiving attention, the Northern Cape population may contain up to 915 active nests, which although higher than the 469 nests reported in 2015 is likely the result of increased monitoring efforts for this species.

    In the KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) province, the known number of active nests (as reported by Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife and Wildlife ACT) totalled 612 in 2023, of which 544 were in protected areas and 68 on private or communal land. Although increases have been recorded in areas such as Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park and Thula Thula Private Game Reserve, decreases have been recorded in several areas, including the northern cluster (comprising Mkuze, Pongola and Magudu). This decline has been attributed to ongoing mass poisoning incidents in the region.

    In Eswatini, the breeding population was estimated at about 200 pairs in the early 1990s (Parker 1994, 1997). In 2001, Monadjem (2003) estimated the population at 163 pairs but subsequently considered this to have been an underestimate in the light of a comprehensive count of 240 active nests in 2002. These were located almost exclusively in protected areas, mainly at Hlane-Mlawula-Mbuluzi but also at Mkhaya-Big Bend and the IYSIS Cattle Ranch (Monadjem and Garcelon 2005). The species was believed to be increasing in Eswatini in 2003 (Monadjem et al. 2003). As of 2023, there are no updated estimates of vulture nesting numbers in Eswatini, although there is anecdotal evidence to suggest that there has been no noticeable change.

    Uneven coverage and the outdated nature of some estimates make an accurate current estimate of the total breeding population for the region uncertain. Added to this uncertainty is the limited amount of published longitudinal data for this species, which mainly exists in the Greater Kimberley area, KZN and Kruger National Park. The combination of uncertain estimates and the absence of longitudinal data in most areas, precludes drawing solid conclusions about the regional population and its trajectory. Based on what information exists, the breeding population is likely to be c. 15% less than the 2015 estimate and in the vicinity of 3000 pairs. The similarity between the 2015 estimate and this assessment should not be taken to indicate population stability, given the increased interest in this species over the last 10 years, which has led to more monitoring efforts (see below). The sharp decline in former key breeding areas such as Kruger National Park is cause for concern, as the area may be acting as a population sink for the greater southern African region, given the movement ecology of this species across the sub-continental region.

    Trend Justification

    Surveys from Kruger National Park indicate a 36% decrease in breeding pairs between the late 1970s and 2011 (Murn et al. 2013), and a further decrease of 40% since 2013 until 2022 (Botha, Murn et al. In prep). Using the IUCN population change equation extended to three generations, this is an 84% decline. The only available population modelling and PVA for White-backed Vulture is focused on the Kruger population and highlights the vulnerability of this species to poisoning events (Murn and Botha 2017). The loss of c. 110 birds per year from poisoning (with a 50% probability of annual occurrence) is sufficient to cause the population to decline. Since 2015, there are records in the African Wildlife Poisoning Database (AWPD) of nearly 2000 poisoned White-backed Vultures in the Greater Limpopo Transfrontier Area (GLTFA) alone, and just over 3100 regionally (EWT and Peregrine Fund 2024). These recorded poisoning mortalities represent the minimum threat (other poisoning mortalities will remain unreported), and exceed the threshold required to drive population decline. When annualised from 2015-2024 the recorded deaths in the AWPD are 190 per year for the GLFTA and 320 per year regionally, a higher rate than the PVA indicated would result in population decline.

    In the Free State, recent details about the species are lacking since earlier reports (Colahan and Esterhuizen 1997, Colahan 2004) and so determining a population trend is not possible. In the Northern Cape, increased interest in monitoring has provided more details of several breeding areas (for example Askham, the Kuruman River and Van Zylsrus – see previous section) that previously received limited coverage, thus increasing the number of known nests. Limited information indicates that the number of nests in the Kalahari Transfrontier Park has not changed or is only slightly smaller than the early 2000s. The population trend in the greater Kimberley area is tending towards expansion although repeat surveys in this area indicate a high level of variability in colony size (Murn et al. 2017). The changeability of colony sizes in the greater Kimberley area limits the usefulness or accuracy of specific colonies (or breeding areas) as indicators of population change in this area and highlights the need for an expanded population monitoring effort (see Research Priorities, below).

    In KZN, an estimate for 2004 was 300 – 350 pairs, with 150 – 250 pairs in protected areas, when the population was believed to be decreasing (Rushworth and Piper 2004). In 2007 and based on aerial surveys, the KZN population was estimated at 344 pairs; 275 in Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park, 35 in Mkuze Game Reserve and 34 in Pongolo Nature Reserve (McKean et al. 2013). During a 2011 aerial survey, 418 occupied nests were counted in Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park (Howells et al. 2011). The 2011 aerial survey also covered the other main breeding localities of this species in Zululand and counted 14 pairs at Mkuze Game Reserve, which has decreased further to eight pairs in 2013, 22 at Pongolo Nature Reserve, 41 at Pongola Private Game Reserve, 32 at Thula Thula Private Nature Reserve and eight at Magudu South. This provided a total of 535 pairs in northern KZN, essentially covering the entire range of the species in the province. The Southern African Bird Atlas Project (SABAP2) (2007 to date) data suggest a western expansion in range in KZN when compared with the SABAP1 (1987-1992) distribution. The northern breeding cluster, comprising areas in and around Mkuze, Pongola and Magudu, continue to decline, mainly in response to ongoing poisoning incidents.

    Overall, there is a lack of comprehensive longitudinal data for the White-backed Vulture in the region. The available information suggests that, despite more information from some breeding areas and likely increases in others, the White-backed Vulture population in the region may be approximately 15% less than the estimate of 2015. The estimated population change up to this point needs to be viewed in the context of the ongoing threat posed by large-scale poison mortalities (especially in former strongholds such as Kruger National Park), the current uncertainty in providing accurate population estimates and the precarious nature of White-backed Vulture populations elsewhere in southern Africa.

    Biology & Ecology

    Taxonomy

    The species has in the past been considered conspecific with the Asian White-rumped Vulture G. bengalensis (Mundy et al. 1992). Recognition of the genus Pseudogyps relevant to the White-backed Vulture is not supported by molecular genetic (nuclear and mitochondrial) investigations (Seibold and Helbig 1995, Johnson et al. 2006, Arshad et al. 2009). Mundy (2002), however, provides a compelling counter-argument to this position emphasising the utility of recognising Pseudogyps.

    Identification

    90–100 cm, 4.6–6.6 kg. Sexes alike. Head dark grey with whitish down. Neck dark blue-grey, with sparser down. Compact ruff at base of neck white. Crop patch brown. Contour feathers brown to off-white, and sometimes streaked. Diagnostic white lower back and rump visible when wings spread. Tail blackish brown. Upperwing coverts and remiges dark; underwing coverts buffy white. Bill and cere dark grey to black. Eyes dark brown. Legs and feet blackish grey. Immatures attain adult plumage over a period of six years. Juveniles are generally darker than adults, with thick woolly down on yellowish green head and neck, streaked body plumage and back spotted brown (instead of white).

    The species is readily confused with the Cape Vulture G. coprotheres, especially when seen in flight and over distance. Seen close-up, the adult is easily differentiated from the adult Cape Vulture by its smaller size, dark eye, and black colour to the exposed skin on the head, neck and breast patches. Seen in flight from below, the adult has all-black remiges that contrast strongly with the pale underwing coverts. This species usually lacks the line of distinct dark spots along the greater upperwing, and along both the greater under- wing and greater under primary coverts often present in the Cape Vulture. In flight, adult White-backed Vultures also often show a white rump when viewed from above. The more streaked juvenile and immature White-backed Vultures differ primarily from young Cape Vultures in the black colour of the exposed skin of the head, neck and breast patches, which are reddish in juveniles and immatures of the latter species. In flight, young White-backed Vultures typically show striking pale lines in the underwing coverts that are absent in young Cape Vultures (Mundy et al. 1992, Allan 2000, Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001, Piper 2005).

    Distribution

    The White-backed Vulture is widespread in Africa south of the Sahel zone, except for the heavily forested equatorial regions in West and Central Africa (BirdLife International 2021). Within the region it occurs in the northern and eastern parts of South Africa and in eastern Eswatini (Figure 1, Mundy 1997). In South Africa, it is absent from two of the nine provinces, i.e. Western Cape and Eastern Cape provinces, and from Lesotho. There is no evidence from the historical record that it ever bred in these three regions (Boshoff et al. 1983, Bonde 1993). It is now only a non-breeding visitor to Gauteng (Whittington-Jones 2004), although it bred there in historical times, e.g. at Hammanskraal and Zoutpan (Tarboton and Allan 1984).

    Although the overall distribution as shown in SABAP1 was not considered to have changed significantly from earlier times, there was evidence for marked decreases in parts of the range (Tarboton and Allan 1984, Mundy 1997). The overall distribution in the region also appears similar between SABAP1 and SABAP2.

    Figure 1: Probability distribution map, with high probability of presence as yellow (from Lee 2024).

    Ecology

    The White-backed Vulture inhabits the woodland regions of southern Africa (Mundy et al. 1992, Mundy 1997). Its feeding and foraging habits are similar to those of the congeneric Cape Vulture and it relies primarily on large mammalian carcasses and feeds communally (Piper 2005). It is reported to very occasionally take live prey, e.g. young Springbok Antidorcas marsupialis and Warthog Phacochoerus aethiopicus (Mundy et al. 1992). This vulture is capable of long-distance movements, as evidenced by ring recoveries (Oatley 1998), re-sightings of marked birds (Monadjem et al. 2013) and GPS-GSM tracked birds (Phipps et al. 2013) but is not migratory (Mundy 1997, Piper 2005). Movements can be on a sub-continental scale and GPS-GSM tracked immatures made daily movements up to about 200 km (Phipps et al. 2013). White-backed Vultures typically roost in trees and on pylons (Mundy et al. 1992). Like the Cape Vulture, the White-backed Vulture drinks and bathes regularly (Mundy et al. 1992).

    The breeding biology of the White-backed Vulture is fairly well known (Kemp and Kemp 1975, Mundy et al. 1992, Monadjem 2001, Monadjem et al. 2003, Herholdt and Anderson 2006, Tarboton 2011). The species is monogamous. Unlike most other Gyps species, White-backed Vultures typically nest in trees and not on cliffs. Nesting on steel pylons has been recorded regularly in the Kimberley area (Northern Cape), Vryburg (North West), Marble Hall (Limpopo) and Boshof (Free State) (Ledger and Hobbs 1985, Wilson 2006, Anderson and Hohne 2008, de Swardt 2013). Nesting is typically loosely colonial, with pairs breeding within sight of one another, but usually with only one or very occasionally two nests in a single tree. Where suitable trees exist, nests are typically concentrated either in tall trees along watercourses or in open woodland areas (Mundy et al. 1992). Nests are built of sticks and lined with grass. They are often re-used. The egg-laying period spans April–September, mainly April–July. The clutch almost invariably comprises a single egg. Juveniles are partially dependent on their parents for food for 5-6 months after fledging. Breeding success is highly variable depending on region and ranges between 43–87%. Nesting success appears negatively correlated with nest density at larger scales (Bamford et al. 2009c), but locally, nest success increases with shortest nearest-neighbour distance (Johnson and Murn 2022). The species is single brooded. Natural causes of breeding failure include predation of nestlings by Leopard Panthera pardus, Serval Felis serval and Honey Badger Mellivora capensis, whilst Pied Crows Corvus albus can disrupt breeding behaviour of nesting vultures (Johnson and Murn 2019).

    Annual survival in one South African study was found to be at least 85% in second-year birds to just less than 100% in adults, although the sample size (n = 7) was small for the latter and overall, the study was compromised by the fading of patagial tags after about 4–5 years (Monadjem et al. 2013). Natural sources of mortality include birds killed by Lion Panthera leo at carcasses and by Black-backed Jackals Canis mesomelas while drinking and bathing (Piper 2005, Herholdt and Anderson 2006).

    Threats & Conservation

    Threats

    The primary and most significant threat to the White-backed Vulture is poisoning. Negative interactions with human infrastructure, such as powerlines and wind turbines, are additional causes of mortality and are combined with an ongoing demand for vulture body parts to be used for belief-based purposes, often obtained by poisoning. Threats reducing adult survival are of particular concern for this species given its low reproductive rate, delayed maturity and long generation time.

    Poisoning as a major threat to this species has been extensively documented (van Jaarsveld 1986, Mundy et al. 1992, Anderson 1995, Herholdt and Anderson 2006, Botha 2007, Naidoo et al. 2011, Murn and Botha 2017), accounting for over 60% of vulture mortalities (Botha et al. 2017, Ogada et al. 2016). This poisoning may be deliberate, e.g. when aimed at harvesting birds for belief-based uses, or accidental, e.g. when targeting mammalian carnivores. A development of deep concern in southern Africa is the mass poisoning of vultures, primarily of this species, in the large protected area strongholds in South Africa, Zimbabwe, Botswana and Namibia to help cover poaching activities (Ogada et al. 2015, Murn and Botha 2017), although harvesting for the animal parts trade has also been implicated in at least some of these instances (Hancock 2009, Groom et al. 2013, Bradley and Maude 2014). The wide-ranging nature of White-backed Vultures means that birds originating from the region could easily succumb to such incidents in the neighbouring states. The non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) diclofenac, a major threat to Gyps vultures, is not currently known to be widely used for veterinary purposes in the region, nor is it licensed for such use, but this drug has been confirmed to be toxic to this species (Oaks et al. 2004). Ketoprofen, another widely available NSAID, is also toxic to this vulture (Naidoo et al. 2010).

    Elevated lead levels are estimated to occur in over 66% of South Africa’s White-backed Vulture population, including chicks and adults (van den Heever et al. 2019). Vultures ingest lead when they feed on the carcasses of animals that have been shot with lead ammunition (van den Heever et al. 2023). The severe physiological effects caused by lead poisoning (van den Heever et al. 2024) are compromising newly fledged juveniles’ movement behaviour, as characterised by small home ranges and an inability to fly long distances (van den Heever et al. In prep).

    The White-backed Vulture is also a victim of electrocution on electricity pylons (Anderson and Kruger 1995, van Rooyen 2000, Kruger et al. 2004). It also succumbs to collisions while in flight with overhead transmission lines (Anderson 2000, van Rooyen 2000, Naidoo et al. 2011, Martin et al. 2012). Such collisions are significant cause of injuries and affect 42% of birds presented at rehabilitation centres, as evidenced by soft tissue and skeletal damage (Naidoo et al. 2011). The construction of wind farms in response to an increasing demand for renewable energy has emerged as a threat to all large-bodied birds of prey. As such, White-backed Vultures and other large soaring species like the Cape Vulture are vulnerable to these threats.

    White-backed Vultures and their body parts are highly sought-after to be used for belief-based purposes. The harvesting of birds and trading their body parts comprises a further major threat to the species with many birds killed using poisons and other means of hunting to satisfy this demand (Mander et al. 2007, Bamford et al. 2009a, McKean et al. 2013, Ogada et al. 2016). Bush encroachment is a threat that may render woodlands too dense for the birds to either easily see or access carcasses but to a lesser degree than the Cape Vulture (Bamford et al. 2009b). This vulture is also sensitive to disturbance, especially when breeding, and this typically restricts nesting to protected, or at least sparsely populated, regions.

    The species occasionally drowns in circular concrete farm reservoirs particularly in the drier western parts of the region (Knight 1987, Anderson 1995, Anderson et al. 1997, 1999, Herholdt and Anderson 2006) but the population-level impact of this threat remains unquantified.

    White-backed Vultures are also sometimes killed in collisions with motor vehicles (Anderson 2000), particularly where carcasses occur on or close to roads. The vulture is also known to have collided with aircraft in flight. White-backed Vultures are occasionally vulnerable to being caught in gin traps (Anderson 2000).

    The long-distance movements undertaken by this species (Oatley 1998, Monadjem et al. 2013, Phipps et al. 2013), especially juveniles and immatures, which are truly sub-continental in scale, mean that individuals are exposed to a wide range of threats during their wanderings, with an associated variation in risk of poisoning mortality (Monadjem et al. 2018). Even birds present in large, protected areas move outside these regions and hence within range of the many major dangers faced by the species. A simple example is of a bird ringed in a private nature reserve near Kimberley in the Northern Cape and recovered poisoned in Namibia (Bridgeford 2001). The White-backed Vulture is a communally foraging species and any large-scale reduction in numbers is likely to negatively impact the efficiency of this method of carcass location (Jackson et al. 2008), with further negative consequences for the species (Dermody et al. 2011).

    Conservation Measures Underway

    The global organisation specifically relevant to vulture conservation is the IUCN Vulture Specialist Group, formed in 2011. Vulture News, a journal dedicated to publishing information on vulture research and conservation efforts is the journal of the IUCN Vulture Specialist Group. International Vulture Awareness Day, held on the first Saturday in September every year, aims to increase conservation awareness about vultures. Ezemvelo KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife initiated annual Vulture Count Days on International Vulture Awareness Day from 2003.

    In 2017 the Multi-Species Action Plan (MsAP) to Conserve African-Eurasian Vultures was adopted by parties to the Convention on Migratory Species (Botha et al. 2017). The Vulture MsAP provides a comprehensive conservation plan, covering 128 range states, to save African-Eurasian vultures from further decline and eventual extinction. The Vulture MsAP lead to the development of the national Vulture Biodiversity Management Plan in South Africa, gazetted in 2024, detailing several actions to prevent further declines in South Africa’s vulture populations.

    The Wildlife and Energy Programme of the EWT has as its aim minimising the risk to wildlife posed by energy and communications infrastructure, including the dangers to large birds such as vultures stemming from electrocution by, and collisions with, such infrastructure (van Rooyen and Piper 1997, Jenkins et al. 2010). The Wildlife and Energy Programme’s largest project is to administer a strategic partnership, formed in 1996, between the EWT and Eskom, South Africa’s national electricity provider. The Wildlife and Energy Partnership maintains a ‘Central Incident Register’ of all bird mortality incidents related to electrical infrastructure, including those involving vultures. Quantification of these mortality incidents is required (see Research Priorities, below), given that earlier studies have highlighted the negative population-level impacts that electrical infrastructure can potentially generate (Boshoff et al. 2011).

    The EWT provides comprehensive Wildlife Poisoning Response Workshops throughout southern and east Africa to train stakeholders on how to rapidly and effectively respond to major poisoning incidents. A Vulture Ambulance, stationed in the high-risk region of the Greater Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area, provides a rapid response vehicle to administer first aid to surviving birds. Despite the value and importance of Wildlife Poisoning Response Activities, population modelling has demonstrated that they are insufficient to halt population declines from targeted poisoning (Murn and Botha 2017) and complementary actions are also required. The EWT and BirdLife South Africa continue to drive the establishment of Vulture Safe Zones in key areas around South Africa, whereby landowners are required to manage their properties in ways that are safe for vultures.

    In 2019 the national Lead Task Team was established under the auspices of the National Wildlife Poisoning Prevention Working Group. The task team comprises several stakeholders within the conservation, wildlife and government sectors, with the aim to minimise the threat of lead to vultures. Since 2016 BirdLife South Africa has conducted comprehensive research on the extent, source and effect of lead poisoning in vultures. BirdLife South Africa, along with the EWT, are actively promoting the switch from lead-based ammunition to lead-free alternatives for hunting, culling and game management purposes.

    Ezemvelo KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife (with the assistance of Wildlife ACT) has implemented a formal monitoring plan in the province of KZN to determine population trends and breeding success as well as to determine age specific mortality rates. A Zululand Vulture Group has been established to co-ordinate vulture conservation interventions within the Zululand region of KZN. It is comprised of representatives from Non-Governmental Organisations, private landowners, and Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife. Wildlife ACT has established a comprehensive network in northern KZN for the early detection of major poisoning incidents. Wildlife ACT (along with the EWT) also conduct regular poison response workshops in northern KZN, to minimise the impacts of such incidents.

    An example of mitigation relevant to electrocution by pylons is the modification of these structures to reduce this risk (Northern Cape Raptor Conservation Forum 2006). Collisions can be mitigated for by line-marking and judicious routing of lines, although the value of the former remains untested and may be inherently limited in its effectiveness related to the biological attributes of flying vultures (Jenkins et al. 2010, Martin 2011, Martin et al. 2012). A detailed assessment of the use of vultures in traditional medicine in South Africa has been undertaken (Mander et al. 2007, McKean et al. 2013) which highlights the unsustainable nature of the trade in vulture body parts for belief-based purposes. The danger posed by drowning in circular farm reservoirs is relatively easily ameliorated by placing objects such as logs into such structures, carefully regulating their water-levels, completely covering them or providing alternative, more suitable, drinking structures to avoid these incidents (Anderson et al. 1997, 1999).

    Supplementary feeding (‘vulture restaurants’) are widely implemented both in the region and elsewhere in the world (e.g. Butchart 1988, Brown 1990, van Rooyen and Vernon 1997, Anderson and Anthony 2006, Monadjem et al. 2012, Phipps et al. 2013). The value of supplementary feeding schemes requires further quantification, although some studies indicate that they may not be needed to sustain vulture populations (Kane et al. 2014) and may increase the abundance of mammalian scavengers instead (Yarnell et al. 2014). Other studies highlight the uneven distribution of supplementary feeding sites and also that in some cases they represent a risk due to hazardous residues (Brink et al. 2020). Despite guidelines for their establishment and maintenance (drafted by VulPro, the EWT and South Africa’s national Lead Task Team) the practice of supplementary feeding for vultures remains unregulated. A register of vulture restaurants is maintained by VulPro and updated with the use of tracking data identifying new feeding sites followed by site visits to confirm. In 2012 there were approximately 124 supplementary feeding sites in southern Africa (Wolter 2012), and this number is likely to have increased. Many supplementary feeding sites are accompanied by hides that allow close-up viewing of the feeding vultures by birdwatchers and other tourists.

    The rescue, rehabilitation and release of White-backed Vultures (and other species) temporarily incapacitated by the various threats faced by the species has been taking place for many decades (Verrynne 1997, Naidoo et al. 2011). Like supplementary feeding, the population-level impact of concerted rehabilitation efforts remains unquantified, and despite the benefits to individual birds that are rescued, the survival of rehabilitated birds is generally lower that their wild counterparts (Monadjem et al. 2013). Key facilities involved in such rehabilitation work include VulPro (North West province), the African Bird of Prey Sanctuary (KZN), FreeMe Wildlife Rehabilitation (KZN) and Moholoholo Wildlife Rehabilitation Centre (Mpumalanga).

    Conservation Measures Proposed

    The key conservation measures required focus primarily on the major threats stemming from poisoning, energy-related infrastructure, trade for belief-based purposes, drowning and negative perceptions and ignorance. The severe and ongoing threat from poisoning needs to be combatted by the rigorous investigation and prosecution of all such instances, as well as the maintenance of ongoing and high-profile education and publicity campaigns emphasising the causes and negative consequences of such incidents. The legal penalties need to be severe enough to act as material deterrents. The mass poisoning of vultures in conservation areas to mask poaching activities and enable harvesting for belief-based purposes requires significant ameliorative action. A transition to the use of lead-free ammunition must be prioritised and implemented via industry to ammunition users. Careful monitoring of the potential use of diclofenac, and other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs lethal to Gyps vultures, is required. Meloxicam has been shown to be non-toxic to Gyps vultures and exists as an alternative NSAID (Naidoo et al. 2008).

    Additional effort is required to reduce electrocutions and collisions of White-backed Vultures related to power-line infrastructure. Existing pylons and overhead lines need to be replaced or retrofitted, on a carefully prioritised basis, and new infrastructure needs to designed and routed, to minimise the risks from electrocution and collisions. All known structures causing fatalities should be replaced immediately and all lines causing collisions should be mitigated without further delay.

    Relevant to the use of White-backed Vultures for belief-based purposes, an intervention strategy is required that addresses the following primary areas of action: a) reduce consumption/demand for vultures through an awareness-building campaign targeting public consumers and current role players; b) change/create policy to improve regulation of the vulture trade; c) improve policing and enforcement for better regulation of the trade; d) improve understanding of the trade to allow more focused interventions, including more research and monitoring (Mander et al. 2007, McKean et al. 2013). McKean and Rushworth (2008) provide supplementary guidelines for interventions aimed at addressing the threat to vultures from traditional use. Firm steps must be maintained to confirm that the food provided at supplementary feeding sites is free from any toxins harmful to the birds. The relevant stakeholders need to be continually reminded of the threat to White-backed Vultures posed by drowning in the farm reservoirs. Similar ongoing action is required to control the dangers from human disturbance at breeding colonies on private land.

    Research Priorities and Questions

    • Regular and accurate censuses of the number of breeding pairs of White-backed Vultures throughout their regional range are a high priority in order to monitor the breeding population size and stability on an ongoing basis. This is best achieved using aerial censuses using fixed-wing aircraft or helicopters (Murn et al. 2002, Monadjem and Garcelon 2005, Howells et al. 2011, Murn et al. 2013). Such counts are already being undertaken on an annual basis in KZN protected areas where this species occurs (Howells et al. 2011).
    • Establish a standardised road transect protocol across the provinces where this (and other relevant) species occurs, to mirror and complement similar monitoring efforts in other parts of Africa
    • Satellite and GSM tracking of adults, immatures and juveniles is invaluable in determining movements and mortality factors (Wolter 2006, Bartels et al. 2007, Phipps et al. 2013). Ringing and patagial tagging (Botha 2007, Monadjem et al. 2012) can also provide information on movements and mortality but is likely less cost effective in this regard.
    • Detailed research is required to determine and refine the population-level impacts of various mortality factors such as:
    • Electrical infrastructure (electrocutions and collisions), and the quantified efficacy of mitigation measures;
    • Harvesting and trading for belief-based purposes;
    • Drowning in farm reservoirs;
    • Ingestion of lead;
    • Additional non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and other pharmaceutical drugs.
    • Foraging patterns and food supply, coupled with the actual and potential value of supplementary feeding schemes, require further investigation and linking to tracking studies.

    Contributors & References

    Assessor/s

    Campbell Murn, Linda van den Heever

    Reviewer/s

    Andre Botha, Simmy Bezeng

    References

    Allan DG. 2000. A photographic guide to birds of prey of southern, central and East Africa. Cape Town, South Africa: Struik.

    Allan D. 2015. White-backed Vulture Gyps africanus. In: Taylor M, Peacock F, Wanless R (eds), The Eskom Red Data Book of Birds of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. BirdLife South Africa, Johannesburg, South Africa. pp 75–77.

    Anderson MD. 1995. Mortality of African White-backed Vultures in the North West Province, South Africa. Vulture News 33: 10–13.

    Anderson MD, Kruger R. 1995. Power line electrocution of eighteen African White-backed Vultures. Vulture News 32: 16–18.

    Anderson MD. 2000. African White-backed Vulture Gyps africanus. In: Barnes KN (ed), The Eskom Red Data Book of Birds of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. BirdLife South Africa, Johannesburg, South Africa. pp 75–77.

    Anderson MD. 2004. Research, monitoring and conservation of vultures in the Northern Cape Province, South Africa. In: Monadjem A, Anderson MD, Piper SE, Boshoff AF (eds), The vultures of southern Africa – Quo Vadis? Johannesburg, South Africa: Birds of Prey Working Group. pp 67–77.

    Anderson MD, Maritz AWA. 1997. The status and distribution of vultures in the Northern Cape Province, South Africa. In: Boshoff AF, Anderson MD, Borello WD (eds). Vultures in the 21st century: Proceedings of a workshop on vulture research and conservation in southern Africa. Johannesburg, South Africa: Vulture Study Group. pp 40–41.

    Anderson MD, Maritz AWA, Oosthuysen E. 1997. Vultures drowning in farm reservoirs. In: Boshoff AF, Anderson MD, Borello WD (eds), Vultures in the 21st century: Proceedings of a workshop on vulture research and conservation in southern Africa. Johannesburg, South Africa: Vulture Study Group. pp 98–99.

    Anderson MD, Maritz AWA, Oosthuysen E. 1999. Raptors drowning in farm reservoirs in South Africa. Ostrich 70: 139–144.

    Anderson MD, Anthony A. 2006. The advantages and disadvantages of vulture restaurants versus simply leaving livestock (and game) carcasses in the veldt. Vulture News 53: 42–45.

    Anderson MD, Hohne P. 2008. African White-backed Vultures nesting on electricity pylons in the Kimberley area, Northern Cape and Free State provinces, South Africa. Vulture News 57: 45–50.

    Arshad M, Pedall I, Gonzalez J, Wink M, Hatzofe O, Khan AA, Osborne T. 2009. Genetic variation of four Gyps species (Gyps bengalensis, G. africanus, G. indicus and G. fulvus) based on microsatellite analysis. Journal of Raptor Research 43: 227–236.

    Bamford AJ, Monadjem A, Anderson MD, Anthony A, Borello WD, Bridgeford M, Bridgeford P, Hancock P, Howells B, Wakelin J. 2009a. Trade-offs between specificity and regional generality in habitat association models: a case study of two species of African vulture. Journal of Applied Ecology 46: 852–860.

    Bamford AJ, Monadjem A, Hardy ICW. 2009b. An effect of vegetation structure on carcass exploitation by vultures in an African savanna. Ostrich 80: 135–137.

    Bamford AJ, Monadjem A, Hardy ICW. 2009c. Nesting habitat preference of the African White-backed Vulture Gyps africanus and the effects of anthropogenic disturbance. Ibis 151: 51–62.

    Barnes KN. 2000. The Eskom Red Data Book of Birds of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Johannesburg, South Africa: BirdLife South Africa.

    Bartels P, van’t Foort W, Wolter K. 2007. Monitoring the success of released rehabilitated vultures using cellular tracking devices and or patagial tags. Vulture News 57: 73–74.

    BirdLife International. 2021. IUCN Red List for Birds. Available: http://www.birdlife.org. [Accessed on October 2024].

    Bonde K. 1993. Birds of Lesotho: a guide to distribution past and present. Pietermaritzburg, South Africa: University of Natal Press.

    Boshoff AF, Vernon CJ, Brooke RK. 1983. Historical atlas of the diurnal raptors of the Cape Province (Aves: Falconiformes). Annals of the Cape Provincial Museums, Natural History 14: 173–297.

    Boshoff AF, Minnie JC, Tambling CJ, Michael MD. 2011. The impact of power line-related mortality on the Cape Vulture Gyps coprotheres in a part of its range, with an emphasis on electrocution. Bird Conservation International 21: 311–327.

    Botha AJ. 2007. A review of colour-marking techniques used on vultures in southern Africa. Vulture News 56: 52–63.

    Botha A, Andevski, J, Bowden C, Gudka M, Safford R, Williams NP. 2017. Multi-species action plan to conserve African-Eurasian vultures. CMS Raptors MOU Technical Publication 5: 1–164.

    Bradley J, Maude G. 2014. Report on vulture poisoning as a result of bushmeat poaching in NG 16 – May 2014. Namibia Bird News 9: 7–11.

    Bridgeford P. 2001. More vulture deaths in Namibia. Vulture News 44: 22–26.

    Brink CW, Santangeli A, Amar A, Wolter K, Tate G, Krüger S, Tucker AS, Thomson RL. 2020. Quantifying the spatial distribution and trends of supplementary feeding sites in South Africa and their potential contribution to vulture energetic requirements. Animal Conservation 23: 491–501.

    Brown CJ. 1990. An evaluation of supplementary feeding for Bearded Vultures and other avian scavengers in the Natal Drakensberg. Lammergeyer 41: 30–36.

    Butchart D. 1988. Give a bird a bone: A brief account of vulture ‘restaurants’ in southern Africa. African Wildlife 42: 316–322.

    Colahan BD. 2004. The status and conservation of vultures in the Free State Province of South Africa. In: Monadjem A, Anderson MD, Piper SE, Boshoff AF (eds), The vultures of southern Africa – Quo Vadis? Johannesburg, South Africa: Birds of Prey Working Group. pp 81.

    Colahan BD, Esterhuizen JR. 1997. The status and conservation of vultures in the Free State Province, South Africa. In: Boshoff AF, Anderson MD, Borello WD (eds), Vultures in the 21st century: Proceedings of a workshop on vulture research and conservation in southern Africa. Johannesburg, South Africa: Vulture Study Group. pp 46–49.

    Dermody BJ, Tanner CJ, Jackson AL. 2011. The evolutionary pathway to obligate scavenging in Gyps vultures. PloS ONE 6: e24635.

    de Swardt DH. 2013. White-backed Vultures nesting on electricity pylons in the Boshof area, Free State, South Africa. Vulture News 65: 48–49.

    Endangered Wildlife Trust, The Peregrine Fund. 2024. The African Wildlife Poisoning Database (AWPD). Available: https://africanwildlifepoisning.org. [Accessed on October 2024].

    Ferguson-Lees J, Christie DA. 2001. Raptors of the World. New York, USA: Houghton Mifflin Company.

    Groom RJ, Gandiwa E, Gandiwa P, van der Westhuizen HJ. 2013. A mass poisoning of White-backed and Lappet-faced Vultures in Gona Rezhou National Park. Honeyguide 59: 5–9.

    Hancock P. 2009. Vulture massacre. Birds and People 23: 6–7.

    Herholdt JJ, Boshoff AF, Anderson MD, Borello WD. 1997. The status and conservation of vultures in the Mpumalanga Province, South Africa. In: Boshoff AF, Anderson MD, Borello WD (eds), Vultures in the 21st century: Proceedings of a workshop on vulture research and conservation in southern Africa. Johannesburg, South Africa: Vulture Study Group. pp 13–20.

    Herholdt JJ, Anderson MD. 2006. Observations on the population and breeding status of the African White-backed Vulture, the Black-chested Snake Eagle, and the Secretarybird in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park. Ostrich 77: 127–135.

    Howells B, Craigie J, Nanni G (eds). 2011. Aerial survey of Zululand tree-nesting vultures, 2011. Pietermaritzburg, South Africa: Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife.

    Jackson AL, Ruxton GD, Houston DC. 2008. The effect of social facilitation on foraging success in vultures: a modelling study. Biology Letters 4: 311–313.

    Jenkins AR, Smallie JJ, Diamond M. 2010. Avian collisions with power lines: a global review of causes and mitigation with a South African perspective. Bird Conservation International 20: 263–278.

    Johnson JA, Lerner HRL, Rasmussen PC, Mindell DP. 2006. Systematics within Gyps vultures: a clade at risk. BMC Evolutionary Biology 6(1): 65.

    Johnson TF, Murn C. 2019. Interactions between Pied Crow Corvus albus and breeding White-backed Vultures Gyps africanus. Ethology, Ecology & Evolution 31: 240–248.

    Johnson TF, Murn C. 2022. Testing the importance of individual nest-site selection for a social and group-living vulture. African Journal of Ecology 61: 6–13.

    Kane A, Jackson AL, Monadjem A, Colomer MA, Margalida A. 2014. Carrion ecology modelling for vulture conservation: are vulture restaurants needed to sustain the densest breeding population of the African White-backed Vulture? Animal Conservation 18: 279–286.

    Kemp AC, Kemp MI. 1975. Observations on the White-backed Vulture Gyps africanus in the Kruger National Park, with notes on other avian scavengers. Koedoe 18: 51–68.

    Knight MH. 1987. Factors influencing vulture numbers in the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park. Vulture News 17: 4–10.

    Kruger R, Maritz A, van Rooyen C. 2004. Vulture electrocutions on vertically configured medium voltage structures in the Northern Cape Province, South Africa. In: Chancellor RD, Meyburg B-U (eds), Raptors Worldwide. Budapest: World Working Group on Birds of Prey and Birdlife Hungary. pp 57–65.

    Ledger JA, Hobbs J. 1985. First record of African White-backed Vultures nesting on man-made structures. Bokmakierie 37: 99–109.

    Lee ATK. 2024. SABAP2 synthesis and supporting information and graphics for White-backed Vulture. Unpublished report. Johannesburg: BirdLife South Africa.

    Mander M, Diederichs N, Ntuli L, Mavundla K, Williams V, McKean S. 2007. Survey of the trade in vultures for the traditional health industry in South Africa. Unpublished report.

    Martin GR. 2011. Understanding bird collisions with man-made objects: a sensory ecology approach. Ibis 153: 239–254.

    Martin GR, Portugal SJ, Murn CP. 2012. Visual fields, foraging and collision vulnerability in Gyps vultures. Ibis 154: 626–631.

    McKean S, Rushworth I (eds). 2008. Guidelines for interventions to address the threat of traditional use to vultures. Pietermaritzburg, South Africa: Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife.

    McKean S, Mander M, Diederichs N, Ntuli L, Mavundla K, Williams V, Wakelin J. 2013. The impact of traditional use on vultures in South Africa. Vulture News 65: 15–36.

    Monadjem A. 2001. Observations on the African White-backed Vulture Gyps africanus nesting at Mlawula Nature Reserve, Swaziland. Vulture News 45: 3–10.

    Monadjem A. 2003. Nesting distribution and status of vultures in Swaziland. Vulture News 48: 12–19.

    Monadjem A, Boycott RC, Parker V, Culverwell J. 2003. Threatened vertebrates of Swaziland: Swaziland red data book: fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. Mbabane, Swaziland: Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Communications.

    Monadjem A, Garcelon DK. 2005. Nesting distribution of vultures in relation to land use in Swaziland. Biodiversity and Conservation 14: 2079–2093.

    Monadjem A, Botha A, Murn C. 2013. Survival of the African White-backed Vulture Gyps africanus in north-eastern South Africa. African Journal of Ecology 51: 87–93.

    Monadjem A, Kane A, Botha A, Dalton D, Kotze A. 2012. Survival and population dynamics of the Marabou Stork in an isolated population, Swaziland. PloS ONE 7: e46434.

    Monadjem A, Wolter K, Neser W, Kane A. 2013. Effect of rehabilitation on survival rates of endangered Cape Vultures. Animal Conservation 17: 52–60.

    Mundy PJ. 1997. White-backed Vulture Gyps africanus. In: Harrison JA, Allan DG, Underhill LG, Herremans M, Tree AJ, Parker V, Brown CJ (eds), The atlas of southern African birds. Vol. 1: Non-passerines. BirdLife South Africa, Johannesburg. pp 160–161.

    Mundy PJ. 2002. When is a vulture a griffon? Vulture News 46: 20–23.

    Mundy PJ, Butchart D, Ledger J, Piper S. 1992. The vultures of Africa. London, United Kingdom: Academic Press.

    Murn C, Anderson MD, Anthony A. 2002. Aerial survey of African White-backed Vulture colonies around Kimberley, Northern Cape and Free State provinces, South Africa. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 32: 145–152.

    Murn C, Botha A. 2017. A clear and present danger: impacts of poisoning on a vulture population and the effect of poison response activities. Oryx 52: 552–558.

    Murn C, Botha A, Wilson B. 2017. The changing sizes of Critically Endangered White-backed Vulture breeding colonies around Kimberley, South Africa. African Journal of Wildlife Research 47: 144–148.

    Murn C, Combrink L, Ronaldson GS, Thompson C, Botha A. 2013. Population estimates of three vulture species in Kruger National Park, South Africa. Ostrich 84: 1–9.

    Naidoo V, Venter L, Wolter K, Taggart M, Cuthbert R. 2010. The toxicokinetics of ketoprofen in Gyps coprotheres: toxicity due to zero-order metabolism. Archives of Toxicology 84: 761–766.

    Naidoo V, Wolter K, Cromarty AD, Bartels P, Bekker L, McGaw L, Taggart MA, Cuthbert R, Swan GE. 2008. The pharmacokinetics of meloxicam in vultures. Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics 31: 128–134.

    Naidoo V, Wolter K, Cuthbert R, Duncan N. 2009. Veterinary diclofenac threatens Africa’s endangered vulture species. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 53: 205–208.

    Naidoo V, Wolter K, Espie I, Kotze A. 2011. Vulture rescue and rehabilitation in South Africa: An urban perspective. Journal of the South African Veterinary Association 82: 24–31.

    Oaks JL, Gilbert M, Virani MZ, Watson RT, Meteyer CU, Rideout BA, Shivaprasad HL, Ahmed S, Chaudhry MJI, Arshad M, Mahmood S, Ali A, Khan AA. 2004. Diclofenac residues as the cause of vulture population decline in Pakistan. Nature 427: 630–633.

    Oatley TB (ed). 1998. Review of ring recoveries of birds of prey in Southern Africa, 1948–1998. Cape Town, South Africa: University of Cape Town.

    Ogada DL, Botha A, Shaw P. 2015. Ivory poachers and poison: drivers of Africa’s declining vulture populations. Oryx 50: 593–596.

    Ogada DL, Shaw P, Beyers RL, Buij R, Murn C, Thiollay J-M, Beale CM, Holdo RM, Pomeroy C, Baker N, Krüger SC, Botha A, Virani MZ, Monadjem A, Sinclair ARE. 2016. Another continental vulture crisis: Africa’s vultures collapsing toward extinction. Conservation Letters 9: 89–97.

    Parker V. 1994. Swaziland bird atlas, 1985–1991. Mbabane, Swaziland: Websters.

    Parker V. 1997. The status of vultures in Swaziland and Mozambique. In: Boshoff AF, Anderson MD, Borello WD (eds). Vultures in the 21st century: Proceedings of a workshop on vulture research and conservation in southern Africa. Johannesburg, South Africa: Vulture Study Group. pp 90–92.

    Phipps WL, Willis SG, Wolter K, Naidoo V. 2013. Foraging ranges of immature African White-backed Vultures (Gyps africanus) and their use of protected areas in southern Africa. PloS ONE 8: e52813.

    Piper SE. 2005. White-backed Vulture Gyps africanus. In: Hockey PAR, Dean WRJ, Ryan PG (eds), Roberts – Birds of Southern Africa, 7th Edn. Cape Town, South Africa: The Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund. pp 488–489.

    Rushworth IA, Piper SE. 2004. Status and conservation of vultures in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. In: Monadjem A, Anderson MD, Piper SE, Boshoff AF (eds), The vultures of southern Africa – Quo Vadis? Johannesburg, South Africa: Birds of Prey Working Group. pp 87–95.

    Seibold I, Helbig AJ. 1995. Evolutionary history of New and Old World vultures inferred from nucleotide sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences 350: 163–178.

    Shaw P, Ogada D, Dunn L, Buij R, Amar A, Garbett R, Herremans M, Virani M, Kendall C, Croes B, Odino M, Kapila S, Wairasho P, Rutz C, Botha A, Gallo-Orsi, U, Murn C, Maude G, Thomsett S. 2024. African savanna raptors show evidence of widespread population collapse and a growing dependence on protected areas. Nature Ecology & Evolution 8: 45– 56.

    Tarboton WR. 2011. Roberts Nests and Eggs of Southern African Birds. Cape Town, South Africa: The Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund.

    Tarboton WR, Allan DG. 1984. The status and conservation of birds of prey in the Transvaal. Pretoria, South Africa: Transvaal Museum.

    van den Heever L, Smit-Robinson H, Naidoo V, McKechnie AE. 2019. Blood and bone lead levels in South Africa’s Gyps vultures: risk to nest-bound chicks and comparison with other avian taxa. Science of the Total Environment 669: 471–480.

    van den Heever L, Elburg MA, Iaccheri L, Naidoo V, Ueckermann H, Bybee G, Smit-Robinson HA, Whitecross MA, McKechnie AE. 2023. Identifying the origin of lead poisoning in White-backed Vulture (Gyps africanus) chicks at an important South African breeding colony: a stable lead isotope approach. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 30: 15059–15069.

    van den Heever L, Naidoo V, Coetzer T, Eyssen L, Hewlett J, Smit-Robinson HA, McKechnie AE. 2024. Sub-lethal impacts of lead poisoning on blood biochemistry, immune function and delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (δ-ALAD) activity in Cape (Gyps coprotheres) and White-backed (G. africanus) Vulture chicks. Environmental Research 245: 117926.

    van Jaarsveld J. 1986. Poisoned White-backed Vultures in the Kruger National Park. Vulture News 16: 22–23.

    van Rooyen CS. 2000. Another one bites the dust. Talon Talk 16: 9–10.

    van Rooyen CS, Piper SE. 1997. The effects of powerlines on vultures. In: Boshoff AF, Anderson MD, Borello WD (eds), Vultures in the 21st century: Proceedings of a workshop on vulture research and conservation in southern Africa. Johannesburg, South Africa: Vulture Study Group. pp 102–104.

    van Rooyen CS, Vernon CJ. 1997. Impact of vulture restaurants as management tools. In: Boshoff AF, Anderson MD, Borello WD (eds), Vultures in the 21st century: Proceedings of a workshop on vulture research and conservation in southern Africa. Johannesburg, South Africa: Vulture Study Group. pp 142–144.

    Verdoorn GH. 1997. The impacts of poison on vultures. In: Boshoff AF, Anderson MD, Borello WD (eds), Vultures in the 21st century: Proceedings of a workshop on vulture research and conservation in southern Africa. Johannesburg, South Africa: Vulture Study Group. pp 105–108.

    Verdoorn GH. 2004. Vultures in the Northwest Province of South Africa. In: Monadjem A, Anderson MD, Piper SE, Boshoff AF (eds), The vultures of southern Africa – Quo Vadis?. Johannesburg, South Africa: Birds of Prey Working Group. pp 100–105.

    Verrynne FJ. 1997. Treatment of injured and poisoned vultures: general considerations. In: Boshoff AF, Anderson MD, Borello WD (eds), Vultures in the 21st century: Proceedings of a workshop on vulture research and conservation in southern Africa. Johannesburg, South Africa: Vulture Study Group. pp 123–126.

    Whittington-Jones CA. 2004. The status of vultures in Gauteng, South Africa. In: Monadjem A, Anderson MD, Piper SE, Boshoff AF (eds), The vultures of southern Africa – Quo Vadis?. Johannesburg, South Africa: Birds of Prey Working Group. pp 96–99.

    Wilson M. 2006. African White-backed Vulture nesting on electricity pylons in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Vulture News 55: 23–24.

    Wolter K. 2006. Vultures SMS their positions to scientists in a technological first for the De Wildt Cheetah and Wildlife Trust’s Vulture Unit and South Africa. Vulture News 55: 31–32.

    Wolter K (ed). 2012. Cape Vulture Task Force report 2012. Johannesburg, South Africa: Endangered Wildlife Trust.

    Yarnell RW, Phipps WL, Dell S, MacTavish LM, Scott DM. 2014. Evidence that vulture restaurants increase the local abundance of mammalian carnivores in South Africa. African Journal of Ecology 53: 287–294.

    Citation

    Murn c, van den Heever L 2025. White-backed Vulture. In: Lee ATK, Rose S, Banda S, Bezeng SB, Maphalala MI, Maphisa DH, Smit-Robinson H (eds), The 2025 Red Data Book of Birds of South Africa, Lesotho and Eswatini. Johannesburg, South Africa: BirdLife South Africa. Available at: https://www.birdlife.org.za/red-list/white-backed-vulture/

    Our generous sponsors

    Sponsor logoSponsor logoSponsor logoSponsor logoSponsor logoSponsor logoSponsor logoSponsor logo